The Meiji Restoration 1868 2

➔ Political Changes 3
➔ Economic Developments 3
➔ Changes in Society 3
➔ Military innovations 4
➔ Rise of nationalism and militarism 4
INSTABILITY AND CHINA 5
DOMESTIC INSTABILITY AND FOREIGN AFFAIRS 6
ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL ISSUES 8
The Second Sino – Japanese War 1937 – 45 10
THE MANCHURIAN CRISIS 14
PEARL HARBOUR AND THE PACIFIC 16
The end of Isolation, go western

Kanagawa Treaty (1853)

● Signed between the U.S. and the Tokugawa shogunate, rulers of Japan
● Japanese were forced to sign the treaty when Commodore Perry sailed in
● Opened ports to American vessels so they could enter Japan and trade
● Important because;
○ With the Tokugawa shogunate, Japan had been isolated since the 1600s
○ Access to resources like silk was made possible
○ Paves the way for other trade treaties to be signed with the Japanese in the
following years
The Tokugawa Shogunate (Early 1600s - 1868)
● Unified Japan following the Battle of Sekigahara under Tokugawa Ieyasu
● Very strict societal order (daimyo, samurai, masses)
● Near the end, young extremists who worshipped the emperor were present
○ However, they hated the bakufu (style of government) since they allowed
Commodore Perry to ink the Kanagawa Treaty

● They had some important ideals

○ Removal of bakufu
○ Bring back Shintoism (saisei itchi)
● The need to modernize was seen with the fall of the Chinese

The Meiji Restoration 1868

➔ Emperor Meiji reigned 1867 – 1912

Period of massive reform
● Move from feudal to modern, industrial society
Widespread changes transformed Japanese economy + society
● The emperor was restored to power, the shogunate fell
● Japan transformed legally and politically
○ Constitution was made and a parliament (the National Diet) was created
● Samurai class would be abolished following the Satsuma Rebellion
○ Replaced by a conscripted army and a modern navy
● Education and trade also flourished
○ Western-style education system in place, silk became a major export
● Western influence was heavily present
○ Emperor Meiji wore a European field marshal uniform, Western throne room
○ Constitution was influenced by German
➔ Political Changes
Capital relocated to Tokyo

➔ 1889 Constitution designed by Privy Council

Selected by emperor
Emperor confirmed as head of state + divine individual
● Authority came from emperor, not parliament
Prime Minister + Cabinet appointed by Emperor, not parliament
● Military under Emperor, not parliament
○ Held 2 cabinet positions at all times
● Any minister disagreeing with proposed law caused govt collapse
○ Emperor then appointed new ministers

➔ 2 house Parliament (Diet) to make laws

House of Representatives
● Elected by males 25+ yrs
Emperor appointed House of Peers
All laws needed approval from both Houses
● Then to Cabinet, then Privy Council + finally Emperor
●
➔ Economic Developments
●
➔ Based on learning from the West, Japanese established factories for textiles, steel paper
etc..
Few natural resources caused heavy dependence on foreign trade for coal & iron
● Paid for in manufactured goods
➔ Adopted telegraph & later telephone
➔ Built railroads, shipyards, harbours
➔ Modern methods of irrigation, seeds, fertilizers reformed agricultural sector
➔
➔ Changes in Society
➔
➔ Established schools by 1000’s, raising Japanese literacy to 90%
Highest in Asia, above most countries globally
Numerous colleges & universities offered specialised training in science,
technology & business methods
School curriculum emphasised science, maths & literacy
● Still emphasised obedience to & respect for elders, teachers, Emperor
➔ 1000’s newspapers & magazines created to meet demands of newly literate masses
➔
➔ Changes to fundamental aspects of Japanese society also
Meat introduced as part of diet
Western clothes & hairstyles appearing in cities

➔ Military innovations

➔ Officer class dominated by upper class samurai

Conscription introduced for all males 20 yrs old – 3 yrs service
● Saw army as preferable to farming
● Gained access to career seen as high status
Upheld samurai ideals of endurance, indifference to pain, loyalty & honour
Reorganised military on German lines, Navy copied Britain
● As modern army & navy developed, many Japanese filled with national
pride
●
➔ Rise of nationalism and militarism
➔
➔ Primarily based around Emperor, schools, & military
School curriculum promoted feelings of faith in & loyalty to nation
Taught to love, revere + obey emperor (& thus gov’t)
State Shintoism reminded people of long history, unique traditions & culture
● Created belief in Japan being most advanced Asian nation, with special
mission to lead rest of region from under Western domination
○ Only Asian nation not colonised by Europe
○ Divine Emperor leading ancient culture, little racial mixing
Caused rise of racism towards non-Japanese Asians

➔ Samurai influence on military, as well as training, further enhanced growth of modern

nationalism + militarism
In order to carry out special mission, strong army/ navy required in case of
conflict with US/ UK/ France
● Expansionist policy required to enable Japan to push colonial powers out
of Asia
● Other nations would benefit from being under Japanese rule
INSTABILITY AND CHINA

1. The Warlord Era

➔ China in a state of civil war
Divided into regions, each controlled by a diff. Warlord
Chinese Communist Party in south, mainly cities

A. Manchuria
➔ Manchuria ruled by Zhang Zonulin
Expanded across northern china, including taking control of Beijing
Declared independence in 1922
Allowed Japanese to continue to develop railways, mines etc
● Assassinated by Kwantung Army
○ Elite forces stationed in Liaodong Peninsula
○ No punishment for assassins
B. End of warlords
➔ 1926, nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) and CCP began to reunify China in Northern
Expedition
Led by Chiang Kai Shek
Conquered most warlords by 1928
Broke alliance with CCP and attacked
Assisted Zhang’s son to regain control of Manchuria

➔ Reunification drive had significant impacts

National infrastructure destroyed
● Railways, bridges
Famine in NW China killed 3-6 million
Attacking CCP alienated china from neighbouring USSR
● CCP survived, remained threat to KMT
●
2. Japanese Policy Towards China up to 1931
➔ Up to 1927, Japan used negotiation and diplomacy with China
Changed during Northern Expedition
● Preferred weak, divided China could be dominated
● Concerned about the rapid success of KMT
○ Worried united china might challenge control of Manchuria
○ Sent troops into Shantung Peninsula
○
 ➔ - 1927 Adopted Positive Policy
- Manchuria treated differently to China
- No longer listened to international communities views on Manchuria
● - Europeans sought to keep Japan weak
● - Did not understand Japan's needs/ interests or mission in Asia
●
➔ - Govt reinforced Kwantung Army, aimed to replace leadership with men loyal to Govt
- As punishment for involvement in Zhang Zoulins assassination
- Hours before new general arrived, army acted without govt orders
● - Manchurian crisis began

DOMESTIC INSTABILITY AND FOREIGN AFFAIRS

➔ Economic crisis led to instability

Govt. unable to create policies regarding the Great Depression
Struggle over Manchuria

A. Domestic Instability
➔ Govt. System was extremely complex
Military Authorities had direct access to Emperor
Cabinet worked for the Emperor, couldn’t be removed by Diet
All ministers had to agree to a particular policy or policy wouldn’t
be enacted
Lower house of Diet, HOR responsible for taxation and budgets,
could block funding if it disagreed with policies
House of Peers in Diet often worked against cabinet and HOR
since many were former cabinet members
The Privy Council and its genro had direct access to the Emperor,
and had veto power over the government.

➔ Lots of political parties, ideology

Even within army and navy
Focused on social, economic and military policy
➔ Managed to survive 1920s
B. Communism
➔ Appealed to millions of unemployed urban workers
Actual party number small
Advocate throwing over the Emperor
➔ Peace and protection law (1925) Amended 1928
Allowed for execution who opposed the government. System
➔ USSR bordered Manchuria, where Japan had interests

C. The Showa Restoration

➔ Emperor grandson (Hirohito)
➔ Conservative member of society wanted to give Showa Emperor full
power
Have full power without parliament
➔ Was also popular with rural population due to economic hardships
Believed the Emperor would remove the government. corruption
Many joined military
● Became a powerful conservative, ultanat. force

D. Military Forces
➔ Military internally divided
Toseiha (Control Faction)
● Wanted to reform the government. not destroy
● Reforms would Ally the army with the zaibatsu, govt.
Officials, suppress political parties, have tight budgets.
Control of economy and prep nation for total war w/ China
●
➔ Radical fractions eg. Sakurakai and Kōdōdah wanted
Complete destruction of all political parties
Destruction of Zaibatsu
Destruction of govt.
War with USSR
Destruction of communist and socialist groups
Reactionary
➔ Tried several coups d’etat
1931: ‘March Incident’ by Sakurakai
1931: ‘October Incident’
1932 ‘League of Blood Incidence’
1936: ‘February Incident’
➔ Increasing instability led to the government. Turning to the Toseiha
 Out of fear
Took control of the government.

ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL ISSUES

1. INDUSTRIALIZATION AND FOREIGN POLICIES
- Japanese economy 1890s-1920 gangbusters
- Processing of minerals up by 700%
- 1895-1915 saw industrial output grew by 250%
- Network of 5,400kms railways by 1900
- Reduce time and cost of transportation
- Exported manufactured good all over Pacific region

A. Zaibatsu
- Enormous companies owned by individual families founded in the late 1900s
- Called Zaibatsu
- Formed monopolies, where they controlled aspects of production across
entire economy
- Eg. Mitsui is involved with banking, mining, textiles, paper ect.
- Promoted development, as zaibatsu had capitol to invest, experts
to oversee + markets to sell to
- 1918, 8 largest controlled 20% of all mining manufacturing + trade
- Absorbed businesses during difficult times
- Worked to control/influence Diet to enable favourable eco-policies
- Forged linked w/ Japanese military
-

B. Social and Economic Stresses

- Industrialisation saw rapid change in work habits
- Rural families sent children to cities to work in factories
- Sent home income to support families
- Stimulated local economies
-
- WW1 saw an economic boom in Japan
- Demand for goods rose as US + UK economies shifted to war production
- Cotton textile exports grew 185% 1914-1918
- Higher wages due to a shortage of workers
 - More people relocating to cities for work
-
- 1920 saw a massive shrinkage of economy
- Demand for Japanese good declined as UK/US resumed full production
- Millions unemployed
- Lost power to purchase\
- Accompanied by declined in rural production due to lack of
demand
- Saw more job losses, poverty
- Some recovery in 1923, due to large building project in Tokyo after
earthquake
- Economy fluctuate, causing hardship for millions of people
2. The Great Depression
- Huge impact of Japan
- Trading partners such as US put up trade tariffs
- Japanese reliance on export hit hard
- GNP declined 20% from 1929-31
- 50% small business closed permanently
- Exports fell 40%
- Agricultural prices decline by 45%
- Unemployment saw decline in consumer goods and purchases
- Factories closed
- Zaibatsu benefitted via increasing their share in economy
-
- Political unrest surged in response to unemployment and hunger
- Strikes and riots
- Surge of support for communist parties
- High dissatisfaction from workers + rural poor who made up majority of
population
The Second Sino – Japanese War 1937 – 45

➔ Japanese expansion continued after Manchurian invasion

◆ 1937 saw outbreak of larger war

1. Japan expands into China 1935 – 36

➔ China Garrison Army operated outside Manchuria

◆ Expanded east to Chahar then south
◆ Forced China to cede Hebei (Peking/ Beijing)
 ● Created demilitarised zone through most of nthrn China
● Created puppet regime to govern region
East Hebei Autonomous Council
◆ Accepted by nationalist China
● Focus was on destroying CCP rather than resisting Japan

➔ New territories combined in 1936 into Mengiang (Mengkukuo)

◆ Descendant of Genghis Khan became head of govt
◆ Fighting between pro – Japanese + pro – China forces increasing

Second United Front

➔ By end of 1936, Chiang Kai-shek’s policy of opposing CCP rather than Japan
increasingly unpopular
◆ Chiang arrested by supporters, forces to negotiate with CCP
● After 2 weeks resisting, created united anti – Japanese front
● CCP + KMT joined militaries to fight Japan

2. Second Sino – Japanese War

➔ July 1937 Japanese + Chinese forces fought at Marco Polo Bridge, near Beijing
◆ Japan demanded apology, United Front govt refused
◆ Fighting broke out around Beijing + Shanghai
● Escalated into full – blown war

➔ August 15, Japan launched attacks on Nanjing + Shanghai

◆ Japanese forces moved from north to south via Chinese railway system
● Shanghai Expeditionary Army + Central China Area Army

RESPONSES TO THE SECOND SINO-JAPANESE WAR

➔ Other countries no intention of investing in war over China
Primary concern in region was economic
● Only concerned about Asain Colonies

League of Nations
Consumed by European affairs in 30s
 Japan only Asian country able to pressure USSR in region
● Japan anti-communist as were all member of the LoN except
USSR
China seen as not worth fighting for
➔
➔ China did appeal to LoN for assistance against Japan
League referred issue to Pacific and China cease hostilities, seek peaceful
resolution
● Japan refused, LoN could do nothing

USSR
➔ Largely happy with Japanese invasion of China
Took pressure off Chinese Communist Party
The USSR supplied a unified government. With weapons, tanks,aircraft,
ammunition etc.
Japanese focus on China took their attention away from Soviet border

➔ Took Advanced of Japan’s involvement in China

Provoked Border conflict at Lake Khasan (1939) while Japan was
attacking Chinese Chinese city of Wuhan
● Japan forced to concede territory so invasion could continue
● Delay enabled USSR to resupply Chinese forces ahead of Wuhan
○ Able to evacuate Wuhan ahead of Japanese advance

➔ Moved again to benefit in 1939

Fought Japan in Mongolia (puppet state managed by USSR)
● 20,000 Japanese soldiers killed
○ Japan forced to concede Chinese territory to USSR
- Continued to supply Chinses forces until Nazi invasion 1941 when shipments ended

USA
➔ Primary Goal was to preserve trade with China
➔ Displeased with Japan, not prepared to sacrificed US trade in region
➔ Concerned Japan might move against Philippines if provoked
US Colony
Banned sale of military supplies to BOTH Japan and China
● Hurt China, Japan its own weapons
● Continued to supply Japan w/ oils and metals
○ Both essential for Japanese war effort
 ○ US main oil importer to Japan
○
➔ Relatively uninvolved till Japan move against territories outside China 1940

Germany
➔ Supported anti-communist Nationalist govt.
Provided military advisors and supplies
● 80% of all weapons used by Chinese military by 1936
●
➔ 1936, signed Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan
Oppose communism, pressure USSR
Germany friendly Japan and China til 1938
● Japan insisted support for China to end
●
➔ Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939 contradicted shared anti-communist stance
Japan wanted Soviets distracted by hostile European powers
Hitler needed Soviet non - aggression pact to pursue European aims

➔ 1940 signed Tripartite pact with Italy and Germany

Used German invasion of France to move into the French colony of
Indonesia 1940

➔ 1941 Japan and USSR signed neutrality agreement promising no involvement in

other wars
Japan moved into Indonesia

➔ China
➔ Moved capital to Chongqing in Far East
Make Japan commit more forces to war, stretch supply lines
Exhaust Japan, so they would withdraw
Guerrilla tactics rather than open battles
● Assassination, sabotage
➔ Sheck continued to consolidate power
Executed potential rivals
Gave himself more govt. Positions and titles
Little effort to assist million sof civilians due to war
International aid disputed to supported, not those in need
To stop Japanese advance, ordered dikes on Yellow river destroyed
● 1 million drowned in flooding
 ● Nationalist troops looted and killed as they withdrew
CCP portrayed KMT as corrupt, uncaring

THE MANCHURIAN CRISIS

1. Events Leading to the Manchurian Crisis
➔ Sep 18th a bomb exploded on the South Manchurian Railway outside Mukden
Minor incident, however, Japan blamed China
Kwantung Army used it as an excuse to occupy Manchuria
● Soon after all areas of the South Manchurian railway were under
Japanese control
● Occupied over the course of a couple of months
➔ By Feb 1932 all but Jehol was occupied
China had more soldiers, Japan had more advanced tech so there were
only minor fights
➔ KMT order its troops to fight the invasion
➔ Japan made an illusion that they had helped Manchuria achieve independence from
China
Presented to the world as a new state, Manchukuo
Rest of the world saw through the sham

2. Responses to the Manchurian Crisis

➔ Several responses by the international community
Most reacted negatively
However not much could be done
● Great Depression
● Fear of the Soviets and Communism

League of Nations Response

➔ China appealed to the league of nations
Respond with great caution, first military conflict between two existing members
➔ Formed the Lytton Committee to investigate Dec 19 31
Decide what to do once Lytton report was submitted
➔ Submitted October 1932
Claimed that pre. Invasion the Chinese government was corrupt and inefficient in
Manchuria
Claimed that Japan made financial investments
Explained the details of the investigation and establishment of the state
● Determined that it was not to protect Manchuria from China
● Wanted Japan to put its forces back to the South Manchurian Railway
Chinese Response
➔ Chiang Kai-shek forced to resign, Dec 1931
By different political groups, and KMT leadership
○ Done mainly to form a government. Full of various groups to
respond to crisis
Chiang still remained head of military
Replaced by Wang Jingwei
● Chiang renamed premier in 1935
➔ Lack of resistance by Chiang’s armies helped Japan achieve a rapid victory with minimal
losses
Chiang wished to maintain Manchuria
● Resources and Industry
● Didn’t realise Japan's military was stronger
➔ Japan took Jehol March 1933
Lead to the Tanggu truce
● Acknowledging that Jehol and Manchuria were part of Japan
● No military action by China to take it back
➔ Chiang saw Communism as a bigger threat than Japan

America's Response
➔ US not a part of the League of Nations
Public not wanting to get involved in foreign affairs similar to the lead up of WW1
Large anti-war movement
➔ Enforced the Open Door policy
Crisis lead to fear that Open Door policy might be disrupted
➔ Mainly concerned with the economics rather than military
➔ Protested by forming the Stimson Doctorate
Not recognising border changes resulting from war
No effect on the crisis
➔ No restrictions on trade with Japan or Manchuria

USSRs Response
➔ Soviets in 1931 were not in the position to oppose any of Japan actions in Manchuria
Too busy trying to stomp out its own people’s revolt to care
➔ Owned and operated the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER)
Japan informed the USSR they had no plans to interfere with the CER
1935 USSR sold the railway to Japan
 ● Preventive measure against potential Japanese aggression or
nationalism

3. Japan's Government After the Crisis

- Unaware of the Kwangtung’s plan to invade Manchuria
- Knew they had planned some form of insubordination
- Replace commander just hours before the crisis
- Main focus was still on the armies disobedience
- Both agreed that Japan needed to dominate Manchuria
- Japan didn’t want to provoke the Great powers
- Order the perpetrators of the Mukden Incident be arrested
- The army refused
- Govt. collapsed over inability to control military
- The next PM attempted to assert dominance over the military
- Began negotiations with Chiang to resolve crisis
- He was assassinated and replaced with a navy admiral
- The direct effect of the incident and invasion meant the govt. and military
policy were now aligned.

PEARL HARBOUR AND THE PACIFIC

➔ Japan launched a series of attacks against multiple targets in early Dec 1941
Most important Pearl Harbour, main US Naval base in pacific

1. The attack on Pearl Harbor

➔ Large Japanese fleet undetected by US while crossing Pacific
Dec 7th, 6 aircraft carriers launched aerial and submarine attack
● Sank 4 battleships damaged 4
● Sank/Severely damaged 3 destroyers, 3 cruisers and other naval
vessels
● Destroyed 188 aircraft
● Killed 2400, injured 1200
●
➔ Japanese losses minimal
20 destroyed
5 small submarines sunk
65 killed

➔ Despite apparent success, main objective missed

All 3 aircraft carriers on training drill
 Oil/Torpedo storage survived attack

➔ US declares war on Japan Dec 8

2. Attacks on other US territories

➔ Simultaneously to Pearl Harbour
Japan attacked Philippines by air Dec 8
● Invaded islands with large armed forces
Attacked Guam Dec 8 by air, land invading force
● Guam major junction pt for undersea cables between Pacific and US
US airbase on Wake island attacked by air Dec 8
● Island then invaded and captured

3. Attacks on British territories

➔ Japan also attacked British territories in Asia
Invaded Malaysia Dec 8 by land, sea and air
● By Feb 1942 Malaysia and Singapore captured
Hong Kong attacked Dec 8 conquered in 3 weeks
Japan invaded Thailand from Indochina Dec 8
● Thailand immediately surrendered
● Used to stage attack on British Burma
○ Major oil producing territory