ANUJ KUMAR

PGT (I P)
8800191961
Chapter-9 COMPUTER NETWORKING

NETWORK:- It is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers. Two

computers are said to be interconnected if they are capable of sharing and exchanging
information. (Autonomous means no computer on the network can start, stop or control
other computer.)

Need / Goal / Application / Advantage of networking:-

(i) Resource sharing
(ii) Reliability
(iii)Cost factor
(iv) Communication medium
(v) Access to remote database
Resource Sharing means to make all programs, data and peripherals available to anyone
on the network irrespective of the physical location of the resources and the user.
Reliability means to keep the copy of a file on two or more different machines, so if one
of them is unavailable (due to some hardware crash or any other) them its other copy can
be used.
Cost factor means it greatly reduces the cost since the resources can be shared
Communication Medium means one can send messages, do video conferencing and
whatever the changes at one end are done can be immediately noticed at another.
Access to remote database (A person can do office work from home if its computer is on
the office network.

Evolution of networking:-
 1969 (ARPANET) was started to connect computers at US defense department &
different universities.
 1980 (NSFnet) was started to make a high capacity network to be used strictly for
academic & engineering research.
 1990 (INTERNET) internetworking of ARPANET, NSFnet and other private
networks resulted into internet. (Network of networks is called internet.)

Elementary Terminology of Networks:-

NODE/WORKSTATION:- The computers that are attached to a network and are
seeking to share the resources of the network.

CLIENT:- It is the user interface which is responsible for sending users query to
request to the Server / Database Server.

SERVER:- A computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software and hardware
resources (e.g. printers, modem etc.) on the network. (or it is responsible for receiving
clients request, processing the request and sending back the result to the client).
(Non-dedicated Servers:- On smaller networks, the computer works both as
workstation and as well as server.
Dedicated Servers:- On bigger network, the computer is reserved for server’s job and its
only job is to help workstations access data, software and hardware resources).

Network Interface Unit [NIU] / NIC [Network Interface Card] :- A Network Interface
unit is an interpreter that helps establish communication between the server and
workstations.
MAC Address:-(Media Access Control) It is unique physical address assigned by
NIC manufacturer to NIC. It is a 6 byte address with each byte separated by a colon e.g.
a sample MAC address could be : 10 : B5 : 03 : 63 : 2E : FC

Manufacturer id Card no
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I P Address:- I P (Internet Protocol) address is the unique number allotted to a computer

and other devices like printer, router, mobile etc. on TCP/IP network. (IPv4 i.e. version 4
uses 4 byte address system and IPv6 i.e. version 6 uses 6 byte address system)
Example 192.168.1.1 in IPv4
2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 in IPv6
Domain Name (DNS Name [Domain Name System Name]:-
It is unique name assigned to a web site or it is name of a I P address.
Example www.cbse.nic.in
URL : Uniform Resource Locator. It is complete address of a web page.
Example www.cbse.nic.in/welcome.htm
Domain name resolution:- It is refers to the process of obtaining corresponding I P
address of a domain name from the system HOSTS file or from DNS Server on the
internet.
ISP: Internet Service Provider Example MTNL, AIRTEL, RELIANCE etc.

SWITCHING:- Techniques used for transmitting data across networks is called

switching.

Types of switching:
(a) Circuit switching:- In this technique, first the complete physical connection
between two computers is established and then data is transmitted from the source
computer to destination computer.

(b) Message switching:- In this technique, the source computer sends data or
message to the switching office first, which stores data in its hard disk. It then
looks for a free link to another switching office and then sends the data to this
office. This process is continued until the data are delivered to the destination
computer(s).
Block size of data to be transmitted is not fixed.

(c) Packet switching:- In this technique, the source computer sends data or
message to the switching office first, which stores data in its RAM. It then looks
for a free link to another switching office and then sends the data to this office.
This process is continued until the data are delivered to the destination
computer(s).
Block size of data to be transmitted is fixed.

Comparison between the Various Switching Techniques: Criteria

Circuit Message Packet
Switching Switching Switching
Path established in advance Yes No No
Store and forward technique No Yes Yes
Message follows multiple routes No Yes Yes

TRANSMISSION MEDIA/CHANNEL:-
(Guided/ Wired  Twisted pair, Co-axial, optical fibres.)
(Unguided/Wireless  Micro waves, radio waves, satellite communication, infra
red, LASER)
Guided/ Wired Transmission Media:-
Twisted pair :- Two identical insulated copper wires wrapped together in a
double helix. (Twisting is to reduce cross-talk i.e. bleeding of signal from one wire to
another)

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Advantages: PGT (I P)
(i) It is easy to install and maintain. 8800191961

(ii) It is very inexpensive

Disadvantages:
(i) It is incapable to carry a signal over long distances without the use of repeaters.
(ii) Due to low bandwidth, these are unsuitable for broadband applications.

Co-axial cable :- It consists of a solid metal core surrounded by wire

shields/mesh each separated by insulator. The central core carries the signal while outer
wire shield provides the ground.
Advantages:
(i) Data transmission rate is better than twisted pair cables.
(ii) It provides a cheap means of transporting multi-channel
television signals around metropolitan areas.
Disadvantages:
(i) Expensive than twisted pair cables.
(ii) Difficult to manage and reconfigure.

Optical fibre :- It consists of thin strands of glass or glass like material

which are so constructed that they carry light from source computer at one end to detector
at the destination computer at the other end.
Advantages:
(i) Transmit data over long distance with high security.
(ii) Data transmission speed is high
(iii) Provide better noise immunity
(iv) Bandwidth is up to 10 Gbps.
Disadvantages:
(i) Expensive as compared to other guided media.
(ii) Need special care while installation?

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Un-Guided/ Wireless Transmission Media:- 8800191961

Radio wave communication:- Transmission making use of radio frequencies is

radio wave transmission. Certain radio frequencies are allocated to private businesses for
direct voice communication. Radio Wave an electromagnetic wave
with a wavelength between 0.5 cm and 30,000m.
Advantages:
(i) Radio wave transmission offers mobility.
(ii) It is cheaper than laying cables and fibers.
(iii) It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
Disadvantages:
(i) Radio wave communication is insecure communication.
(ii) Radio wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms
etc.

Micro wave communication:- It consists of transmitter, receiver and atmosphere.

In this parabolic antennas are mounted on towers to send a beam to other antenna through
atmosphere. Higher the tower greater the range of communication. (When radio wave
frequency is higher than 3GHz is named micro wave.)
Advantages:
(i) It is cheaper than laying cable or fiber.
(ii) It has the ability to communicate over oceans.
Disadvantages:
(i) Microwave communication is an insecure communication.
(ii) Signals from antenna may split up and transmitted in different way to different
antenna which leads to
reduce to signal strength.
(iii) Microwave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms
etc.
(iv) Bandwidth allocation is extremely limited in case of microwaves.

Satellite communication:- In satellite communication the earth station consists of a

satellite dish that functions as an antenna and communication equipments to transmit and
receive data from satellites passing overhead. Satellites are placed in geostationary orbit
(22,300 miles above earth’s surface).
Advantages:
(i) Area covered is quite large.
(ii) No line of sight restrictions such as natural mountains, tall building, towers etc.
(iii) Earth station which receives the signals can be fixed position or relatively mobile.
Disadvantages:-
(i) Very expensive as compared to other transmission mediums.
(ii) Installation is extremely complex.
(iii) Signals sent to the stations can be tampered by external interference.

Infra red communication:- The infra red light transmits data through air and can
propagate throughout a room (bouncing off surfaces) but will not penetrate walls. (such as
TV remotes)

LASER:- (It is direct line of sight communication). It requires a LASER transmitter

and a photo sensitive receiver at each end.

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TYPES OF NETWORKS:-
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LAN (Local Area Network) :- It is confined to a localized area(office,

building etc.) It is generally limited to a geographic area such as writing lab, school or
building. It is generally privately owned networks over a distance not more than 5 Km.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) :- It is spread over a city. MAN is the

networks cover a group of nearby corporate offices or a city and might be either private or
public.

WAN (Wide Area Network) :- It is spread across country. These are the
networks spread over large distances, say across countries or even continents through
cabling or satellite uplinks are called WAN.

PAN (Personal Area Network) :- A Personal Area Network is computer

network organized around an individual person. It generally covers a range of less than 10
meters. Personal Area Networks can be constructed with cables or wirelessly.
Example:- Bluetooth

TOPOLOGY:- The pattern of inter-connection of nodes in a network is called

topology.

Types of topologies:-

Bus :- It consists of a single length of the transmission medium

(normally coaxial cable) onto which the various nodes are attached.

Advantages:
(i) Easy to connect and install.
(ii) Involves a low cost of installation time.
(iii) Short cable length and simple wiring layout.
(iii) Can be easily extended.

Disadvantages:-
(i) The entire network shuts down if there is a failure in the central cable.
(ii) Only a single message can travel at a particular time.
(iii) Difficult to detect fault and remove faults.

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Star :- It consists of a central node to which all other nodes are

attached by a single path.

Advantages:
(i) Easy to troubleshoot
(ii) A single node failure does not affect the entire network.
(iii) Fault detection and removal of faulty parts is easier.

Disadvantages:-
(i) Difficult to expand.
(ii) Longer cable is required.
(iii) Central node dependency.
(iii) The cost of the hub and the longer cables makes it expensive over others.
(iv) In case hub fails, the entire network fails.

Ring/Circular :- In this each node is connected to two and only two

neighboring nodes.

Advantages:
(i) Short cable length required.
(ii) No wiring closet space required

Disadvantages:-
(i) Node failure causes network failure.
(ii) Difficult to diagnose faults.
(iii) It is not possible to shut down a small section of the ring while keeping the majority
of it working normally.

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Tree :- The shape of the network is that of an inverted tree with the
central root branching and sub branching to the extremities of the network.

Graph :- In this topology, nodes are connected together in an

arbitrary fashion. A link may or may not connect two or more nodes. There may be
multiple links also. It is not necessary that all the nodes are connected.

Mesh :- In this topology, each node is connected to more than one

node to provide an alternative route in the case the host is either down or too busy.

Fully connected :- When in a network each host/node is connected to other

directly i.e. there is a direct link between each node, then the network is said to be fully
connected.

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NETWORK DEVICES:- 8800191961

Modem :- It is a network device that allows you to connect and communicate

with other computers via telephone lines.(internal & external modem)

RJ45 connector: - The RJ-45(Registered Jack) connectors are the plug-in devices used in
the networking and telecommunications applications. They are used primarily for
connecting LANs, particularly Ethernet.

Hub :- It is a network device that allows to connect computers in a

LAN. A hub can be active hub or passive hub(It has 8/12/24 ports with RJ-45 connector).

Switch :- It is a network device that allows to connect computers in a LAN

or two LAN segments. Switch is also called as intelligent hub as it can send data only to
intended node.

Repeater :- It is a network device that amplifies and restores signals for long
distance transmission. (It used in between two nodes where distance exceeds 70meters)

Bridge :- It is a network device that establishes an intelligent connection

between two local networks with the same standard but with different types of cable.

Router :- It is a network device that works like a bridge but can handle
different protocols.

Gateway :- It is a network device that connects dissimilar networks.

CRACKERS :- The crackers are the malicious programmers who breaks into
secure system.

HACKERS :- The hackers are more interested in gaining knowledge about

computer systems and possibly using knowledge for playful pranks.

VIRUS:- A computer virus is a malicious software program which causes damage

to computer software or hardware.

ANTIVIRUS:- An antivirus is a software program that is used to prevent, detect

and remove computer viruses.

OSS(Open Source Software):- Software whose source code is available to the user.

FS(Free Software):- Software which is available to an user without paying any cost for
it.

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PROTOCOL:- Set of rules used for communication. 8800191961
 A protocol means the rules that are applicable for a network.
It defines the standardized format for data packets, techniques for detecting and
correcting errors
and so on.
A protocol is a formal description of message formats and the rules that two or more
machines must follow to exchange those messages.

(i) HTTP:- (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

Read/append/open a web page.

(ii) FTP:- (File Transfer Protocol)

Upload & download files (sharing of files).

(iii) TCP/IP:- (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

Sending & receiving of message.

(iv) SLIP:- (Serial Line Internet Protocol)

Relay IP packets over dial up lines(No support for dynamic address).

(v) PPP:- (Point to Point Protocol)

It is internet standard for transmission of IP packets over serial lines.

NETWORK TERMINOLOGIES

GSM(Global System for Mobile communication): it is leading digital cellular system. In

covered areas, cell phone users can buy one phone that will work any where the standard is
supported. It uses narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio
frequency.
CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access): it is a digital cellular technology that uses
spreadspectrum techniques. CDMA does not assign a specific frequency to each user. Instead
,every channel uses the full available spectrum.
WLL(Wireless in Local Loop) : WLL is a system that connects subscribers to the public
switched telephone network using radio signals as a substitute for other connecting media.
Email(Electronic Mail): Email is sending and receiving messages by computer.
Chat: Online textual talk in real time , is called Chatting.
Video Conferencing: a two way videophone conversation among multiple participants is called
video conferencing.
SMS(Short Message Service): SMS is the transmission of short text messages to and from a
mobile pone, fax machine and or IP address.
3G and EDGE: 3G is a specification for the third generation of mobile communication of mobile
communication technology. 3G promises increased bandwidth, up to 384 Kbps when a device is
stationary.
EDGE(Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution ) is a radio based high speed mobile data
standard.
Network Security Concepts:
Viruses: Viruses are programs which replicate and attach to other programs in order to corrupt
the executable codes. Virus enters the computer system through an external source and become
destructive.
Worms: Worms are also self- replicating programs that do not create multiple copies of itself on
one computer but propagate through the computer network. Worms log on to computer systems
using the username and passwords and exploit the system.
DESKTOP.INI
FOLDER.HTT
Trojan horse: - Though it is a useful program, however, a cracker can use it to intrude the
computer system in order to exploit the resources. Such a program can also enter into the
computer through an email or free programs downloaded through the Internet.
Spams: Unwanted e-mail (usually of a commercial nature sent out in bulk)
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Cookies: Cookies are the text messages sent by a web server to the web browser primarily for
identifying the user.

Firewall: A firewall is used to control the traffic between computer networks. It intercepts the
packets between the computer networks and allows only authorized packets to pass.
Cyber Law: Cyber law refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of Internet and the World
Wide Web.
Cyber Crimes: Cyber crime involves the usage of the computer system and the computer
network for criminal activity.
Hacking: Hacking is an unauthorized access to computer in order to exploit the resources.
Web Services:
WWW: The World Wide Web or W3 or simply the Web is a collection of linked documents or
pages,
stored on millions of computers and distributed across the Internet.
HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language):- HTML is a computer language that describes the
structure and behavior of a web page. This language is used to create web pages.
XML (eXtensible Markup Language):- Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a meta
language that helps to describe the markup language.
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol):- A protocol to transfer hypertext requests and
information between servers and browsers.
Domain Names: A domain name is a unique name that identifies a particular website and
represents the name of the server where the web pages reside.
URL:- The Uniform Resource Locator is a means to locate resources such as web pages on the
Internet. URL is also a method to address the web pages on the Internet. There are two types of
URL, namely,absolute URL and relative URL.
Website: A collection of related web pages stored on a web server is known as a website.
Web browser: A software application that enables to browse, search and collect information from
the Web is known as Web browser.
Web Servers: The web pages on the Internet are stored on the computers that are connected to the
Internet. These computers are known as web servers.
Web Hosting: - Web Hosting or website hosting is the service to host, store and maintain the
websites on the World Wide Web.
Web Scripting: - The process of creating and embedding scripts in a web page is known as Web
Scripting. Types of Scripts:-
(i) Client Side Scripts: - Client side scripts supports interaction within a webpage. E.g. VB
Script, JavaScript, PHP (PHP‟S Hypertext Preprocessor).
(ii) Server Side Scripts: - Server side scripting supports execution at server – end. E.g. ASP, JSP,
PHP
(Note:- The highlighted portion web scripting is deleted for 2020-21)

NETWORK SECURITY MEASURES

Authentication :- Logging on to a computer with a user name and
password is authentication

Authorization :- It is the process of allowing an authenticated

user to access the resources of the computer by checking access
permission, such as providing file access password is authorization.

Firewall :- It is a hardware or software which is used to protect

a network from unauthorized access.
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Malware: It is a malicious software. It is delivered over a network

to infect, explore or steal data or information. Or in other words,
malware is a software that harms hardware or software of a
computer.
Adware: These are advertising supported software that generates
revenue for it’s developer by automatically generating online
advertisements. It slows down band width or network speed of a
network.
Computer virus: It is a harmful software that harms Hardware or
software of a computer. It could not execute by itself. It attaches
itself to an executable file for it’s execution

Worms: Self replicating harmful software. It makes it’s multiple

copies leading to consumption of memory storage

Trojan horse: - Though it is a useful program, however, a cracker

can use it to intrude the computer system in order to exploit the
resources. Such a program can also enter into the computer through
an email or free programs downloaded through the Internet.

Cookies: Text files that are created by web servers on client system
for maintaining session with them.
Spams: Unwanted e-mail (usually of a commercial nature sent out
in bulk)

Internet VS Intranet
The Internet is a wide network of computers that is available to all
whereas Intranet is a network of computers designed for a certain
group of users. Internet is a public network and Intranet is a private
network. Internet contains various source of information while
Intranet only contains group-specific information.

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Difference between Static and Dynamic Web Pages:

Sl. No. Static Web Page Dynamic Web Page
1 In static web pages, Pages will remain In dynamic web pages, Content of
same until someone changes it pages are different for different visitors.
manually.
2 In static web pages, Information are In dynamic web page, Information are
change rarely. change frequently.
3 Static Web Page takes less time for Dynamic web page takes more time for
loading than dynamic web page. loading.
4 In Static Web Pages, database is not In dynamic web pages, database is
used. used.
5 Static web pages are written in Dynamic web pages are written in
languages such as: HTML, JavaScript, languages such as: CGI, AJAX, ASP,
CSS, etc. ASP.NET, etc.
6 Static web pages does not contain any Dynamic web pages contains
application program . application program for different
services.

Add-on Vs Plug-in

Add-on and plug-ins are two widely used terms in browsers. Both the terms boost the
performance of browser. Add-ons to add extra features to a web browser and plug-ins to
add some missing functionalities.
Plug-in is a complete program and add-on is not a program.
For example Flash is an plug-in which is a complete program. Flash player made by
Adobe is required to play a video in web browsers.
Java is a plug-in made by Sun Microsystem which is used to run programs based on Java.
Plug-in is not bounded for browsers only.

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ABBREVIATIONS:-
LAN Local Area Network
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
WAN Wide Area Network
WWW World Wide Web
WLL Wireless in Local Loop
GSM Global System for Mobile
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
SIM Subscriber Identification Module
3G 3rd Generation of mobile communication technology
EDGE Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution
SMS Short Message Service
NIU Network Interface Unit
TAP Terminal Access Point
AM Amplitude Modulation
FM Frequency Modulation
PM Phase Modulation
NFS Network File Server
FTP File Transfer Protocol
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
HTML Hyper Text Markup Language
DHTML Dynamic Hyper Text Markup Language
XML Extensible Markup Language
ARPANET Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
NSFnet National Science Foundation network
VGM Voice Grade Medium
DGM Data Grade Medium
OSS Open Source Software
FLOSS Free Libre or Livre and Open Source Software
GNU GNU’s Not Unix
FSF Free Software Foundation
OSI Open Source Initiative
W3C World Wide Web Consortium
BNC connector Bayone Neill Concelman connector
AUI connector Attachment Unit Interface connector
VOIP Voice Over Internet Protocol (used in voice communication)
SIP Session Initiation Protocol (used in voice & video calls, instant messaging)
H.323
PAN Personal Area Network
VPN Virtual Private Network
MMS Multimedia Messaging Service
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
GPS Global Positioning System
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
POP Post Office Protocol (used for retrieving emails)
IMAP Internet Mail Access Protocol (used for retrieving emails)
GPS Global Positioning System

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