COMPUTER NETWORKS

COMPUTER NETWORKS
• A Collection of several computers
interconnected together
• Purpose
– To share the information
• Sharing of files/ documents
• Sharing the printer
• Sharing server
• Interconnected through/using : Copper wires,
Twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical cable, microwaves,
infrared
• Internet : Network of Networks
 Uses of Computer Networks
1. Resource sharing -> files, data, video, audio, etc.
– Client : machine that request resources
– Server : machine that provides requested resources/services
2. Communication -> email, video conferencing, placing business orders, Instant
messaging
3. E-Commerce -> B2C,B2B,G2C,C2C, P2P
– B2C -> Business to Consumer eg: Amazon
– B2B -> Business to Business eg: Amazon
– G2C -> Govt. to Consumer eg: eservices
– C2C -> Consumer to Consumer eg. Direct coounication
– P2P -> Peer to Peer communication
4. Financial Services -> Banks,Paytm, UPI
5. Ubiquitous Computing -> IoT, IoE, Smart devices
6. Mobile/ Wireless Computing -> Hotspot, WiFi
7. Satellite Communication -> GPS
8. Wearable Computers -> Smart watches
 COMPUTER NETWORKS
Types Architecture Devices
– LAN - peer to peer - Modem
- Client – Server - Router
– MAN
- OSI Layer - Bridge
– WAN - TCP/IP Layer - Switches

Medium Topology Technology

- Coaxial Cable - Tree - Internet
- Twisted pair - Point to point - Intranet
- Wireless - Star - Extranet
- Mesh
- Bus
UNIT I - INTERNET AND DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Internet – Network Edge – Network of Networks – Data communication
Components –Data representation and Data flow –Networks – Protocols and
Standards – OSI model – TCP/IP protocol suite – Physical Layer:
Multiplexing – Transmission Media.
UNIT II - DATA LINK LAYER
Framing – Error Control: Introduction – Block coding – Linear block codes –
Cyclic codes – Checksum – Media Access Control: Random Access –
CSMA/CD, CDMA/CA – Controlled Access – Wired LANs – Wireless
LANs.
UNIT III - NETWORK LAYER
IPV4 – IPV6 – ICMP – Transition from IPV4 to IPV6 – Routing Algorithm:
Distance-Vector Routing, Link-State Routing, Path-Vector Routing –
Unicast Routing protocols – Multicast Routing protocols.
UNIT IV - TRANSPORT LAYER
Process to Process Communication – User Datagram Protocol –
Transmission Control Protocol – SCTP – Congestion Control – Quality of
Service.
UNIT V - APPLICATION LAYER
Domain Name System – Standard Application: WWW and HTTP, FTP,
Electronic Mail, TELNET – Firewalls – Network Management System –
SNMP.
 Smallest and most personal type of networ

Range of about 10 meters (33 feet).

Wireless Personal Area Network: WiFi and Bluetooth

Wired Personal Area Network: The USB is used to create a wired personal area network.
LAN : Network that is limited to a small geographic area, such as a single building, a
campus, or a group of nearby buildings.
Either Wired or Wireless
Wired LAN : Ethernet ( IEEE 802.3)
Wireless LAN: WiFi (IEEE 802.11)
Range: 10m – 1 km

Example: An office network where computers are connected to a shared printer and
server.
Covers a city or a large campus, connecting multiple buildings within a city or a large
campus area.

Example: 1. A university campus network connecting various departments and

buildings.
2. Cable TV Network
It covers a broad area, often spanning across cities, countries, or even continents.

Example: The Internet itself is a global WAN, connecting networks worldwide.

 Data communication Components

•It should be done in two ways

i)Local- It takes LAN Connection.
ii)Remote- It takes Long distance like MAN&WAN.

•Data should be Transferred in the form of 0’s and1’s

 Components
1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to
be transmitted from one person to another. It could be a
text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It
can be a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video
camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a
computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
4.Transmission Medium / Communication Channels:
Communication channels are the medium that connect two
or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by
either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data
(The sender), it should be understandable to the receiver
also otherwise it is meaningless.
Protocol
• TCP(Transmission Control Protocol):
– It is responsible for dividing messages into packets on
the source computer and reassembling the received
packet at the destination or recipient computer.
– It also makes sure that the packets have the information
about the source of the message data, the destination of
the message data,
– the sequence in which the message data should be re-
assembled,
– and checks if the message has been sent correctly to the
specific destination.
• IP(Internet Protocol):
– IP is responsible for handling the address of the
destination computer so that each packet is sent to its
proper destination
 Data Transmission mode
• The data transmission modes can be characterized in the
following three types based on the direction of exchange of
information:
– Simplex
– Half-Duplex
– Full Duplex
• The data transmission modes can be characterized in the
following two types based on the synchronization between the
transmitter and the receiver:
– Synchronous
– Asynchronous
• The data transmission modes can be characterized in the
following two types based on the number of bits sent
simultaneously in the network:
– Serial
– Parallel
 TYPES OF DATA
COMMUNICATION
 Simplex Mode
Advantages:
• Data transmission mode in which
•It utilizes the full capacity of the
the data can flow only in one
communication channel during data
direction, i.e., the communication is
transmission.
unidirectional.
•It has the least or no data traffic
• In this mode, a sender can only send issues as data flows only in one
data but can not receive it. direction.
Similarly, a receiver can only Disadvantages :
receive data but can not send it. •It is unidirectional in nature having
• Example: Radio Broadcasting, no inter-communication between
Loudspeaker, keyboard to monitor devices.
& IoT •There is no mechanism for
• IoT information to be transmitted back
to the sender
 Half Duplex
• It is a two-way communication or we
Advantages:
can say that it is a bidirectional
1.Cost-Effective:
communication in which both the
2.Reduced Complexity
devices can send and receive data but
3.Less Interference
not at the same time.
Disadvantages :
• When one device is sending data then 1.Slower Data Transfer:
another device is only receiving and 2.Inefficient for High
vice-versa. Traffic
• For example, walkie-talkie.
 Full-duplex
• It is a two-way
communication or we can Advantages :
say that it is a bidirectional 1.Faster Communication
communication in which 2.Efficient for High Traffic
both the devices can send 3.Better Utilization of Bandwidth
and receive data at the same Disadvantages:
time. 1.Higher Cost
2.Increased Complexity
• For example, mobile phones,
3.Potential for Interference
landlines, etc.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA
COMMUNICATION
1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct
destination and correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the
data accurately, without introducing any errors. The data
may get corrupted during transmission affecting the
accuracy of the delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in
a timely manner without any delay; such a data delivery
is called real time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time.
Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of data being
transmitted.
 DATA REPRESENTATION
• Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce information.
• There may be different forms in which data may be represented.
• Some of the forms of data used in communications are as follows:
– Text Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as
upper case. It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system :
ASCII, Unicode
– Numbers Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9. It is
stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode
– Images ―An image is worth a thousand words‖ is a very famous saying.
In computers images are digitally stored.
– Audio Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and
broadcasted. Example: What we hear on the radio is a source of data or
information. Audio data is continuous, not discrete.
– Video Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie
 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
• Communication channels are the medium that connects
two or more workstations.
• Workstations can be connected by either wired media or
wireless media. It is also known as a transmission
medium.
• The transmission medium or channel is a link that carries
messages between two or more devices.
• We can group the communication media into two
categories:
– Guided media transmission
– Unguided media transmission
 Guided Media
• In this transmission medium, the physical link is created using wires or cables
between two or more computers or devices, and then the data is transmitted
using these cables in terms of signals.
Twisted pair cable
• In a twisted-pair cable, two identical wires are wrapped together in a double
helix.
• The twisting of the wire reduces the crosstalk. It is known as the leaking of a
signal from one wire to another due to which signal can corrupt and can cause
network errors.
• The twisting protects the wire from internal crosstalk as well as external forms
of signal interference.
• Types of Twisted Pair Cable :
– Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and telephones
widely. As the name suggests, there is no external shielding so it does not
protects from external interference. It is cheaper than STP.
– Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from crosstalk
due to shield. Due to shielding, it protects from external interference. It is
heavier and costlier as compare to UTP.
Twisted pair
 Coaxial Cable

• It consists of a solid wire core that is surrounded by one or more

foil or wire shields.
• The inner core of the coaxial cable carries the signal and the outer
shield provides the ground.
• It is widely used for television signals and also used by large
corporations in building security systems.
• Data transmission of this cable is better but expensive as
compared to twisted pair.
 Categories of coaxial cables

26
 Optical fiber
• Optical fiber is an important technology. It transmits large amounts of data
at very high speeds due to which it is widely used in internet cables.
• It carries data as a light that travels inside a thin glass fiber. The fiber optic
cable is made up of three pieces:
– Core: Core is the piece through which light travels. It is generally
created using glass or plastic.
– Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the light back to
the core.
– Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber cable from the
environment.
 Unguided media
• Unguided media is a type of Transmission Media.
A transmission medium is a physical path
between the transmitter and the receiver.
Unguided media transport
electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor.
• It is also known as unbounded or wireless media,
and does not rely on physical pathways to
transmit signals.
• Instead, they use wireless communication
methods to propagate signals through the air or
free space.
Types of Unguided Media
 Radio waves
• Radio waves are electromagnetic signals used for various
wireless communication technologies, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and radio
broadcasting.
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are
normally called radio waves.
• Radio waves are omni directional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they
are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving
antennas do not have to be aligned.
• Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission, we can have
several types of antennas.
Applications of Radio Waves
• FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples
of multicasting.
Advantages of Radio Waves
• It is used in WAN (Wide Area Network).
• Used in mobile Cellular phones.
• Radio wave spread in large area so they can penetrate the wall.
• The main problem with radio waves here is that radio waves
transmit signals in all directions, which can be interrupted by
another antenna that uses the same frequency
 Micro waves
• Unguided media transmit bits as electromagnetic waves having a
frequency range of 1 GHz to 300 GHz, known as microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional, which means that when antennas
transmit signals, they transmit along a narrow-focused path. Due
to the narrow path, the sender and receiver antenna have to be
aligned.
• Microwaves are unidirectional, so the signal is transmitted without
interfering with other antennas signals.
• When microwaves are of higher frequencies, they cannot penetrate
walls like radio waves. For example, the sender sends a high-
frequency microwave signal to the receiver, but the receiver is
indoors, the signal will not be able to penetrate the wall, causing
signal loss.
Types of Microwaves : 1. Terrestrial Microwave
• Terrestrial Microwave are microwaves that transmits the beam of a radio signal
from one ground based antenna to another ground based antenna.
Characteristics of Terrestrial Microwave
• Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4 GHz
to 23 GHz.
• Bandwidth: Terrestrial Microwave supports the bandwidth range from 1 to 10
Mbps.
• Short distance: Terrestrial Microwave inexpensive for short distance.
• Long distance: Terrestrial Microwave expensive because it requires a higher
tower length for a longer distance.
• Attenuation: Attenuation refer loss of signal. It is because of environmental
conditions and antenna size.
Advantages Of Terrestrial Microwave
• Terrestrial microwave is cheaper than using cables for communication.
• Terrestrial microwave does not require land for installation so it is free from
taking any land space.
• Terrestrial microwave transmission provides easy communication in trains
because installation of cables in trains is not a easy task.
• Communication over oceans is achieved by using microwave.
Disadvantages of Terrestrial Microwave
Line of Sight Required: The signals need a clear path between antennas. Obstructions like
buildings, trees, or mountains can block the signal.
Weather Interference: Bad weather, especially rain, can disrupt the signal, leading to poor
performance.
Distance Limitations: Range for communication is limited. For longer distances, multiple
stations are needed, which increases cost and complexity.
High Initial Cost: Setting up the infrastructure, including towers and antennas, can be
expensive.
Maintenance: Regular maintenance is necessary to keep the system running smoothly, which
can be costly and time-consuming.
Limited Bandwidth: Compared to some other communication methods, the bandwidth available
 2. Satellite Microwave Communication
• A satellite is a object that revolve around the earth. A satellite
microwave is a type of communication technology that uses
microwave radio waves to transmit data between a ground-based
station and an orbiting satellite.
Advantages of Satellite Microwave Communication
• Wide Coverage: Satellites can cover large areas of the Earth, reaching
remote and rural locations where other communication methods might
not be available.
• Long Distance Communication: They allow for communication over
very long distances, including international and intercontinental
connections, without the need for physical infrastructure on the ground.
• Reliable: Satellites are less affected by geographical obstacles like
mountains or buildings, providing a more consistent and reliable signal.
• Broadcast Capabilities: Satellites can efficiently broadcast information
to a large number of receivers simultaneously, making them ideal for
television and radio transmissions.
• Flexibility: They can be used for various applications, including
internet, phone services, TV broadcasting, and emergency
communication.
Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave
Communication
• High Cost: Launching and maintaining satellites
is very expensive.
• Signal Delay: Signals travel a long distance to
and from satellites, which can affect real-time
communications like phone calls and video
conferencing.
• Weather Sensitivity: Bad weather, such as heavy
rain or storms, can interfere with satellite signals,
leading to disruptions.
 Infrared
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1
mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication.
• Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
• When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the
remote by our neighbours. Infrared signals useless for long-range communication.
• In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's
rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.
• It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
Characteristics of Infrared Signals
• Infrared signal supports high bandwidth, so the data rate will be very high.
• It can not penetrate the wall. So communication in one room can not be
interrupted by the nearby rooms.
• Its provides better security and minimum interference.
• Infrared communication doesn't work well outside because sunlight interferes
with the infrared signals.
Advantages of Unguided Media
• Flexibility: Devices can connect from anywhere within the signal range,
providing mobility and convenience.
• Allowing devices to communicate without the need for physical connections.
• Easy to install.
• Scalability: Adding new devices or expanding the network is straightforward
and doesn't require extensive reconfiguration.
Disadvantages of Unguided Media
• Interference: Signals can be disrupted by other electronic devices and
weather conditions.
• Security: It is easier for unauthorized people to access and intercept wireless
signals.
• Range Limitations: Wireless signals have a limited range.
• Signal Quality: Obstacles like buildings and walls can decrease signal
quality.
• Bandwidth: Generally, unguided media can offer lower bandwidth compared
to guided media.
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
 Propagation in Unguided Media
When a signal travels from sender to receiver, it can travel in different ways as
follows:
• Ground Propagation
• Sky Propagation
• Line of sight Propagation
• Ground Propagation: It follows the curvature of the Earth, which means
that radio waves travel very closely through the lowest part of the Earth’s
atmosphere..
– Ground Propagation is used in long-range radio navigation.
• Sky Propagation: In this propagation, the waves traveling upward into the
ionosphere are reflected. The ionosphere is one of the layers of the
atmosphere that consists of particles in the form of ions. In this transmission,
the signals can travel long distances with minimum output power.
– Sky propagation is used in AM and FM radio, Very High-Frequency
Television, and Citizen Band, etc.
• Line of sight Propagation: Signals of very high frequencies are transmitted
from antenna to antenna in a straight line. Here the antennas used for
transmission are facing each other and are directional.
– Line of sight propagation is used in cellular phones, satellite signals, and
radars, etc.
 Internet
• It is a global network of interconnected computer
networks, including private, public, academic, and
business networks.
• It allows for the exchange of data and resources
between devices and users anywhere in the world.
• When you visit a website, your computer sends a
request over these wires to a server. A server is where
websites are stored, and it works a lot like your
computer's hard drive. Once the request arrives, the
server retrieves the website and sends the correct data
back to your computer
 How Does it Work?
TCP/IP:
• Standardized communication protocols like the
Internet Protocol suite (TCP/IP) allow different
devices and networks to "talk" to each other.
Packet Switching:
• Large messages are broken down into smaller
"packets," which are then routed independently to
their destination and reassembled, making efficient
use of network resources.
 History
ARPANET (1960s-1980s):
• The internet's origins lie in the ARPANET, a project by the U.S.
Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA) to enable information sharing among researchers.
TCP/IP Adoption (1983):
• The formal adoption of TCP/IP on January 1, 1983, allowed
diverse networks to communicate, a crucial step in the internet's
development.
World Wide Web (1990s):
• Tim Berners-Lee created the World Wide Web at CERN in 1990,
providing a user-friendly way to access and link information
via web browsers.
 Key Services and Uses
• World Wide Web (WWW): A collection of websites and web
pages accessible through the internet.
• Electronic Mail (Email): Instantaneous communication
between individuals.
• Online Applications: Access to software and services stored
and run on remote servers.
• Social Media and Communication: Platforms for interacting
with others online.
• Education, Business, and Entertainment: The internet serves
as a vital tool for learning, commerce, and leisure.
 Network Edge
• The network edge is where a device or a local network communicates with
the internet
• Edge devices
• An edge device is one that serves as an entry point to an organization or service
provider’s network core. It includes routers, switches, wide-area networks
(WANs), firewalls, and integrated access devices (IADs).
Advantages of Edge Computing
• Decreased Latency
• Decreased Bandwidth Costs
• Decreased Network Traffic
Disadvantages of Edge Computing
• Reduced Privacy and Security
• Increased Hardware Costs
Applications
• Healthcare : Heart monitoring ,smart watches, glucose monitors
• Transportation: autonomous cars as data can be analyzed from nearby data centers
which reduces the time lag in the car
• Retail : customers can swipe into the store with their phone app or a QR code
 Edge Devices
• Routers connect multiple networks, such as your home network to the internet
• Switch : switches facilitate communication between devices within the same
network.
• Wide-area network
A WAN consists of local-area networks (LANs) that connect to each other. In
this way, the WAN edge connects the edges of LANs. For example, an
organization can connect three offices, each with its own LAN, using a WAN
or software-defined WAN (SD-WAN).
• Firewall
A firewall controls the data that is allowed to enter and exit a network
infrastructure according to predefined rules. Firewalls inspect data packets,
looking for anything that raises suspicion, then discard any packets containing
potential threats.
• Integrated access device
An IAD converts different types of data input and renders them into a common
format. For example, an IAD is used to convert analog and digital phone
signals into one common digital signal. IADs help simplify communications
and enable more efficient transmissions at the edge.
 NETWORK OF NETWORKS
1. Internet as a Network of Networks: The Internet is a global network of
networks. It's not a single, monolithic network but a vast interconnected system
of networks operated by various organizations, including internet service
providers (ISPs), universities, corporations, and governments.
2. TCP/IP Protocol: The Internet's core communication protocol is TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). It enables data to be
transmitted across different networks and devices, ensuring reliable delivery.
3. Interconnected Autonomous Systems (ASes): The Internet is divided into
numerous Autonomous Systems, or ASes. Each AS is a collection of IP
networks and routers under the control of a single organization. They
interconnect to form the internet.
4. Internet Service Providers (ISPs): ISPs are crucial components of the internet's
network of networks. They provide access to the global network for individuals
and organizations. ISPs may operate their own networks or interconnect with
other ISPs to create a vast interconnected web.
5. Peering and Transit: ISPs engage in peering and transit
agreements to exchange traffic. Peering involves direct
interconnection between ISPs to exchange traffic for mutual
benefit. Transit involves one ISP providing access to the entire
internet for another ISP for a fee.
6. Tiered Structure: The internet often has a tiered structure with
Tier 1 ISPs at the top. These are large global ISPs that don't pay
for transit because they peer with each other. Tier 2 and Tier 3
ISPs are beneath them, paying for transit and often providing
access to end-users.
7. BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): BGP is the routing protocol
used to exchange routing information between different ASes on
the internet. It plays a vital role in determining the path data takes
as it traverses the network of networks.
8. Content Delivery Networks (CDNs): CDNs are integrated into
the network of networks to optimize content delivery. They have
servers located in various regions to reduce latency and improve
the distribution of web content.
9. Global Reach: The internet's network of networks provides a global reach,
allowing users and organizations worldwide to connect, communicate, and
share information. It has become a fundamental infrastructure for modern
society.
10.Security and Governance: Managing the security and governance of the
internet is a complex challenge. Various organizations, such as ICANN
(Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers), work to maintain
the stability and security of the internet.
11. IPv6 Adoption: The exhaustion of IPv4 addresses has driven the adoption
of IPv6, a new addressing scheme that enables continued growth in the
network of networks. IPv6 provides an immense number of unique IP
addresses.
12. Internet of Things (IoT): IoT devices are being integrated into the
network of networks, expanding its scope and complexity. These devices
generate and exchange data, posing new challenges for security and
management.
 NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can a signal carrying
transport information.
Topics discussed in this section:
▪Network Criteria
▪Physical Structures
▪Categories of Networks
 Network Criteria
■ Performance
■ Depends on Network Elements

■ Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput

■ Reliability
■ Failure rate of network components

■ Measured in terms of availability/robustness

■ Security
■ Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:

■ Errors

■ Malicious users
 Physical Structures
■ Type of Connection
■ Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
■ Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission

■ Physical Topology
■ Connection of devices
■ Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast

59
Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
Physical Topology
 Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected
to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of Bus Topology
• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines
are required.
• Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps.
• The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build
small networks.
• CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
• A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid
this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted
Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
• Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
• Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also
used in cable television networks.
 Ring Topology
• In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with
exactly two neighboring devices. A number of repeaters are used
for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through
99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can
be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each
Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
• In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by
the workstations to transmit the data.
• The most common access method of ring topology is token
passing.
– Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed
from one node to another node.
– Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
 Operations of Ring Topology
• One station is known as a monitor station which takes
all the responsibility for performing the operations.
• To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token.
After the transmission is done, the token is to be
released for other stations to use.
• When no station is transmitting the data, then the
token will circulate in the ring.
• There are two types of token release techniques: Early
token release releases the token just after transmitting
the data and Delayed token release releases the token
after the acknowledgment is received from the
receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
• The data transmission is high-speed.
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type
of topology.
• Cheap to install and expand.
• It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• The failure of a single node in the network can
cause the entire network to fail.
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• The addition of stations in between or the removal
of stations can disturb the whole topology.
• Less secure.
 Star Topology
• In Star Topology, all the devices
are connected to a single hub
through a cable.
• This hub is the central node and
all other nodes are connected to
the central node.
• The hub can be passive in nature
i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same
time the hub can be intelligent
known as an active hub. Active
hubs have repeaters in them.
• Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables
are used to connect the
computers.
• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.

Advantages
• Easy to install, manage, and troubleshoot.
• Isolates issues to individual connections; a failure in one device doesn't affect
others.

Disadvantages
• Dependence on the central hub; if it fails, the entire network goes down.
• More cabling is required, making it costlier than a bus topology.

Uses
• Common in corporate environments where each computer connects to a
central switch or hub.
• ATMs and branch systems connect to a central server for secure and reliable
transactions.
 Mesh Topology
• In a mesh topology, every device is
connected to another device via a
dedicated channels. These channels
are known as links.
• Suppose, the N number of devices are
connected with each other in a mesh
topology, the total number of ports
that are required by each device is N-
1.
• There are 6 devices connected to each
other, hence the total number of ports
required by each device is 5. The total
number of ports required = N * (N-1).
• Suppose, N number of devices are
connected with each other in a mesh
topology, then the total number of
dedicated links required to connect
them is N C 2 i.e. N(N-1)/2.
• There are 6 devices connected to each
other, hence the total number of links
required is 6*5/2 = 15.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• High redundancy; network remains operational even if some
connections fail.
• Scalable and adaptable; can handle a large number of
devices.
• Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence
suitable for less number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet
backbone, where various internet service providers are
connected to each other via dedicated channels. This
topology is also used in military communication systems and
aircraft navigation systems.
 Tree Topology
• Tree topology is the variation
of the Star topology.
• It combines characteristics of
star and bus topologies,
arranging nodes in a
hierarchical structure that
resembles a tree.
• In tree topology, the various
secondary hubs are connected
to the central hub which
contains the repeater.
• This data flow from top to
bottom i.e. from the central
hub to the secondary and then
to the devices or
• from bottom to top i.e.
devices to the secondary hub
and then to the central hub.
Advantages of Tree Topology
• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central
hub thus it decreases the distance that is traveled by the
signal to come to the devices.
• It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize
from different computers.
• We can add new devices to the existing network.
• Error detection and error correction are very easy in a
tree topology.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
• The cost is high because of the cabling.
• If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a
large organization
 Hybrid Topology
• A hybrid topology combines two or more different topologies into
a single network.
• For example, a network might use a star topology for its core
infrastructure and a bus topology for a smaller, isolated segment.
Advantages
• Flexibility to tailor the network to specific needs.
• Enhanced fault tolerance by combining different topologies.

Disadvantages
• Complexity increases with the number of topologies integrated.
• Requires careful planning to ensure smooth operation.

Uses
• Hybrid topology helps manage thousands of servers with a combination of mesh (for
redundancy) and star (for control) structures.
• Critical systems like patient records and diagnostics use star topology for control, while
monitoring devices may use mesh for continuous data flow

Best Type of Network Topology

1. For low costs: Bus and Star

2. For high reliability: Mesh and Hybrid
3. For high scalability: Tree and Mesh
4. For high performance: Mesh and Star