WEKSCOL INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT REPORT

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that; this is my personal report of industrial attachment at West Kenya Sugar
Company Limited. I have compiled it myself and it has never been presented before, at any
level of education. It is a pure reflection of what I learnt at West Kenya Sugar Company
Limited (WEKSCOL) for the three month at WEKSCOL.

STUDENT
NAME: MERCY SHOYA

SIGNATURE…………………….. DATE…………………

SUPERVISOR
NAME: MR. BONFACE OUMA
SIGNATURE........................................ DATE .......................................

i
 DEDICATION
I dedicate this industrial report to the almighty God for his grace and protection.
To my parents, dear brothers and sisters for the moral and financial support without them I
would have not made it here.
Lastly to my supervisor MR. BONFACE OUMA may God bless you.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost my sincere gratitude’s goes to the Almighty God for the gift of life and
strength He has given me to conduct this research. I wish to express my heart felt gratitude to
everyone who gave me support and encouragement so that this research to become success. I
really give a lot of gratitude to the Supervisors Mr.Bonface Ouma and Mr.Tallam Billy for
feeding me with adequate information to help me carry out the research.
I’m grateful to the school principal who granted me permission and chance to conduct the
research at WEKSCOL not forgetting my parents and siblingswho also contributed in this
process.

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ABSTRACT
This report acts as an evidence for the completion of a twelve weeks industrial attachment I had at
West Kenya Sugar Company Limited in the department of Processing, as a part of my Diploma
programme. The attachment acted as a training ground for me and a base for personal development.
This was through person-to-person interaction with the workers from the subordinate staffs to top
manager. This has been a preparatory ground as to the work am expected to perform at work place as
well as a connection ground for many opportunities after school. This attachment report aims at
giving feedback to my College Sigalagala National Polytechnic School of Applied Sciences.
This report addresses the importance of field attachment to students before transiting from the tertiary
education, the structural organisation of WESKOL, the experiences, knowledge and skills attained
during the training period and also the strengths and weaknesses of the company. It will also
acknowledge and appreciate people who made my attachment a success. Most important the report
will be a journey of the sugar processing processes, quality control management and analysis to
certify high quality performance in line with the mission of the company.
The period at attachment has involved application of theoretical knowledge into practical fields
through machine operations, sampling and analysis activities as well as all the processes employed in
production. This report will focus on all sugar processing processes from cane inspection site, through
pre-milling, milling, juice treatment and sugar processing. It will also include energy production by
extensive usage of cane by-product. As of more importance will be environmental pollution control
practices employed which stands out to be the future hope of the company. It will also discuss raw
water treatment for human and boiler consumption.

iv
v
Table of Contents
DECLARATION....................................................................................................................................6
DEDICATION.................................................................................................................................6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................6
ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER ONE....................................................................................................................................6
1.0 INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................6
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................6
2.0 SUGAR PROCESSING FLOW DIAGRAM...........................................................................6
2.1 CANE INSPECTION AND WEIGHMENT............................................................................6
2.1.1 Cane Inspection.......................................................................................................................6
2.1.2 Weighment..............................................................................................................................6
2.2.1 Pre- milling..............................................................................................................................6
2.2.1.1 Cane yard.............................................................................................................................6
2.2.1.2 Chopper................................................................................................................................6
2.2.1.3 Heavy Duty Cutter...............................................................................................................6
2.2.1.4 Shredder...............................................................................................................................6
Activity at the shredder...............................................................................................................6
2.2.2 Milling Section........................................................................................................................6
2.2.2.1 Hydraulic pressure system..................................................................................................6
2.2.2.2 Cooling and Lubrication System........................................................................................6
2.2.2.3 Mill 1.....................................................................................................................................6
2.2.2.4 Mill 2.....................................................................................................................................6
2.2.2.5 Rotary screen.......................................................................................................................6
2.2.2.6 Sand catcher tank................................................................................................................6
2.2.2.7 Mill 3.....................................................................................................................................6
2.2.2.8 Mill 4.....................................................................................................................................6
2.3. Furnace......................................................................................................................................6
2.3.1 Air System...............................................................................................................................6
2.3.2. ID fan......................................................................................................................................6
2.3.2.1 Forced Draft (FD) fan..........................................................................................................6
2.3.2.4 SA fan..................................................................................................................................6
2.3.3 Fuel System.............................................................................................................................6
2.3.3.2 Flue gas flow.........................................................................................................................6
2.3.4 Water System..........................................................................................................................7
2.3.4.1 Water System Flow Diagram..............................................................................................7
2.3.4.2 Feed drum............................................................................................................................7
2.3.4.3 Economizer...........................................................................................................................7
2.3.4.4 Steam drum..........................................................................................................................7
2.3.4.5 Mud drum............................................................................................................................7
2.3.5 Boiler Stoppage Process.........................................................................................................7
2.3.6 Boiler Maintenance.................................................................................................................7
2.3.6.1 Mud drum maintenance......................................................................................................7
2.3.6.2 Steam drum..........................................................................................................................7
2.3.7 Boiler Start Up........................................................................................................................7
2.3.8 Boiler Box Up..........................................................................................................................7
2.4.0 WATER TREATMENT PLANT..........................................................................................7
2.4.1 Water treatment flow chat.....................................................................................................7
2.4.1.0 Cascade aerator...................................................................................................................7
2.4.1.1 Clarifier................................................................................................................................7
2.4.1.2 Clarified water tank (CWT)................................................................................................7
2.4.1.3 Multi Grade Filter (MGF) unit...........................................................................................7
2.4.1.4 Activated Carbon Filter (ACF)...........................................................................................7
2.4.2 DEMINERALIZATION........................................................................................................7
2.4.2.1 Strong Acid Cat ion (SAC) unit..........................................................................................7
2.4.2.2 Degasser tank.......................................................................................................................7
2.4.2.3 Strong Base Anion (SBA I) unit..........................................................................................7
2.4.2.4 Strong Base Anionic (SBA II) unit.....................................................................................7
2.4.2.5 Mixed Bed.............................................................................................................................7
2.4.3 Regeneration and Recharging................................................................................................7
2.4.4 Backwashing...........................................................................................................................7
2.4.5 Water analysis.........................................................................................................................7
2.5 EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANT.......................................................................................7
2.5.1 Effluent Treatment Flow Chart.............................................................................................7
2.5.2 Screen Chamber.....................................................................................................................7
2.5.3 Oil Schemer.............................................................................................................................7
2.5.5 Equalization Tank..................................................................................................................7
2.5.6 Primary Aeration and Clarification......................................................................................7
2.6 LEACHET WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT..........................................................7
2.6.1 LTP Flow Diagram.................................................................................................................7
2.6.2 Convectional Aerator Tank (CAT) Chamber.......................................................................8
2.6.3 Flash Mixer.............................................................................................................................8
2.6.4 Equalization Tank..................................................................................................................8
2.6.5 Primary Clarifier....................................................................................................................8
2.6.6 Heat Exchanger.......................................................................................................................8
2.6.7 Buffer tank..............................................................................................................................8
2.6.8 Anaerobic Blanket Sludge Reactor Tank (UNBSR).............................................................8
2.6.9 Convectional Aeration Tank (CAT)......................................................................................8
2.6.10 Secondary Clarifier..............................................................................................................8
2.6.11 Moving Bed Bio Reactor......................................................................................................8
2.6.12 Chlorine Contact Tank.........................................................................................................8
2.6.13 Accelerated Gravity Separator (AGS)................................................................................8
2.6.14 Activated Carbon Filters......................................................................................................8
2.6.15 Multi Grade Filters...............................................................................................................8
2.6.16 Treated Water Tank.............................................................................................................8
2.6.2 Sludge Disposal.......................................................................................................................8
2.6.2.1 Mud Sump............................................................................................................................8
2.6.2.2 Continuous Centrifugal Machine.......................................................................................8
2.7 PROCESS HOUSE....................................................................................................................8
2.7.1 Process Control Room............................................................................................................8
2.7.2 Juice Treatment......................................................................................................................8
2.7.2.0 Juice Treatment Flow Diagram..........................................................................................8
2.7.2.1 Weighment Tank.................................................................................................................8
2.7.2.2 Heaters..................................................................................................................................8
2.7.2.2.1 Raw Juice Heaters............................................................................................................8
2.7.2.2.2 Secondary Juice Heaters..................................................................................................8
2.7.2.2.3Tertiary Heaters.................................................................................................................8
2.7.2.3 Liming Tank.........................................................................................................................8
2.7.2.4 Limed Juice Tank................................................................................................................8
2.7.2.5 Flash Tank............................................................................................................................8
2.7.2.6 Clarifier................................................................................................................................8
Juice clarification at clarifier..........................................................................................................8
2.7.2.7 Evaporators..........................................................................................................................8
Evaporators diagram dome.........................................................................................................8
2.7.3 Juice Recovery........................................................................................................................8
2.7.3.1 Rotary Vacuum Filter (RVF)..............................................................................................8
 2.7.4 SUGAR HOUSE.....................................................................................................................9
2.7.4.0 Sugar House Flow Diagram................................................................................................9
.........................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................9
2.7.4.1 PANS.....................................................................................................................................9
2.7.4.1.1 A- Pan Boiling...................................................................................................................9
2.7.4.1.2 B-pan boiling.....................................................................................................................9
2.7.4.1.3 C-Boiling............................................................................................................................9
2.7.4.2 Operations in Pans...............................................................................................................9
2.7.4.2.1 Wash Out...........................................................................................................................9
2.7.4.2.2 Striking..............................................................................................................................9
2.7.4.2 CRYSTALLIZERS..............................................................................................................9
2.7.4.3 CENTRIFUGAL..................................................................................................................9
2.7.4.3.1Batch Centrifugal...............................................................................................................9
2.7.4.3.2 Continuous Centrifugal....................................................................................................9
2.7.4.4.1 Hooper...............................................................................................................................9
2.7.4.4.2 Rotary Sugar Dryer (FBD)...............................................................................................9
2.7.4.5 GRADER..............................................................................................................................9
2.8 PROCESS LABORATORY.....................................................................................................9
2.8.1 Sugar moisture test.................................................................................................................9
2.8.2 Sugar colour test.....................................................................................................................9
2.8.3 pH determination....................................................................................................................9
2.8.4 Determination of water insoluble matter in sugar...............................................................9
2.8.5 Determination of moisture in bagasse...................................................................................9
2.8.6 Determination of sugar trace.................................................................................................9
2.8.7 Determination of sugar ash....................................................................................................9
2.8.8 Determination of brix.............................................................................................................9
2.8.9 Determination of pol/sucrose content....................................................................................9
2.8.10 Laboratory terminologies.....................................................................................................9
2.8.11 Procedure for slurry preparation........................................................................................9
CHAPTER THREE.........................................................................................................................9
3.1 CHALLENGES.........................................................................................................................9
3.2 RECOMMENDATIONS...........................................................................................................9
3.3 CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................9
3.4 REFERENCE............................................................................................................................9
 Managing
director

General Manager
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
West Kenya Sugar Company LTD is currently the leading sugar production company in Kenya with
the daily records of 6000 tonnes of canes milled in a day. Its main raw material is sugar cane which is
provided by loyal farmers throughout the year. In every tonne of cane it is expected to produce 1kgs
Human resource Roads’
of sugar. Chief project Purchasing Stores’
and administration engineer engineer manager
1.1 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE manager
manager

Board of
directors
Transport
Financial Chief Chief process Head of Auto-
manager
coordinator engineer manager agriculture workshop
manager

Duty chief Process

Financial Software
engineer manager
accountant engineer

Cane
Agriculture
development
service
manager
manager

1
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 SUGAR PROCESSING FLOW DIAGRAM

Process Flow Chart.

Cane Weighed juice tank Grey Lime

Quality check If no Parked for

Mixed Juice (Flow meter)

Q.Team decision Primary heating 72oC
Milk of lime
preparation
If Ok sent to weigh Bridge Juice liming tank 10 Bx.
PH 7.20 +/- 0.3
Evaporation (Raw syrup)
Weight tag & day Filtrate Juice
Provided on the trailer Secondary heating 103oC

Cane Preparation (+85 PI) Syrup

Flocculant addition clarification
Flash
H.W imbibition tank
Juice Clarifier
Milling (Juice samples for Clear
Bx, Pol & Pty) juice Scum Treated Syrup
Heating to Pan Station
98 to
Boilers (Steam) 110oC
Bagasse (Pol, Moist) Mud
Rotary
Vac.Filter
Excess to bagasse Filter cake (Pol) To cane field as manure
store / sales

Brown
Sugar Boiling
Treated B A Light A H- C - BH - Seed
syrup Magma molasses molasses Magma molasses slurry

A – Pan B – Pan C – Pan

Boiling Boiling Boiling
(Brown Sugar)

A B C
Crysta llizer
Crysta llizer Crysta llizer

A A L
Centrifuge B B H C
AH Centrifuge Centrifuge

A - Sugar
B- Sugar / C- Sugar /
magma magma
Final
molasses
Hopper – grader - Bin
Store

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2.1 CANE INSPECTION AND WEIGHMENT

Here the canes are received, inspected of their quality, weighed then the farmers’ slips
verified for payment processing as well as transporters payment as it depends on the number
of tonnes received. The slips are recorded on a slip delivery record sheet for future reference
purposes. A summary is done on a daily basis on the ages of the canes according to the
farmer’s slip and the assessed age by the analyst, the crop rotation as either ratoon or first
planting, ratoons have high sucrose content than first plants, the level of trash on the canes
and the tonnes for every age blanket.
2.1.1 Cane Inspection
Inspection is done mainly to determine the quality of cane received at the company. This is
done by checking on;
 Levels of trash, tops, mud and roots on the canes – the weight of extraneous matters
should be below 8%.
 The age of cane is calculated to estimate the age of the cane since they sometimes
vary with the slip age.
 Cane varieties- specific varieties are recommended by the department of agriculture to
farms. These are canes with high sucrose content and other species that take short
time to mature. Hybrid canes take even 14 months to mature.
 They include;
 Co 421
 Co 420
 Co 945
 EAK
 D8484

 Cane diseases- in case a disease is noticed it is immediately reported to the agriculture

department to find out if it has adverse effects to sugar processing process.

A random sampling is done for the canes in the tractor, from them an average of their ages
recorded. After verification, canes proceed to weighment.
To calculate the age of sugarcane, formula used was;

Where;
X is the total number of internodes present
6 represent three internodes assumed to be present at the top and bottom (left on the ground
after cutting the sugarcane).
2/3 means it takes one and half months for an internode to grow.
For example, if sugarcane brought has a total of 30 internodes;

3
 =36×2/3
=24 months
The recommended age of canes is 18 months because at this time they have high levels of
sucrose.
Canes are received from different stations. Tractor canes are from local farms whereas trucks
transport canes from out stations, which includes, Makuti Misikhu, Busia, Chemilil, Miwani,
Kericho and Naitiri and Khalaba
Sampling is done for all the station, where six canes are taken from every station in a day.
Composite sampling; a sample is obtained at different points of the same source about three
or four times or any other specific time. Spot/systematic sampling; sample is taken once from
the source. A full unbroken cane is picked from every compartment of a truck. They are
labeled then taken to the laboratory for analysis.
Quality of canes
 Fresh- transported same day of harvesting
 Burnt canes- burning is done before harvesting. They affect boiling as they stick on
the walls of the boiling surfaces, thus boiling must be done same day.
 Stale canes- have stayed for more than one day before being delivered to the
company. They have low contents of sucrose since inversion (conversion of sucrose
to reducing sugars) has taken place.

Laboratory test for canes

 Level of trash for sampled canes- this happens if the trash level was considered
high.
 Brix- total dissolved solid in sugar juice done using refractometer
 Pol/ polarity- sucrose content in a cane by use of polarimeter. A mature cane
should range 14.5% pol.

Purity=

The quality of a cane is usually its purity after laboratory analysis.

2.1.2 Weighment
This section involves cane weighment by the use of a weighbridge system which is connected
to a computer that prints out a new slip with the number of tonnes against the farmer’s name,
ID number and also those of transporters and the vehicles number plate. The net weight
reflects to the farmers phone through a message text immediately. This avoids future
complains from farmers. 160kgs is deducted on every tractor to cater for extraneous matters
such as trash, roots, mud and tops.

4
Importance of Weigh Bridge in WEKSCOL
 Weighbridge truck scales accomplish one main task: They allow truck owners to sell
or charge by weight over the bridge and they effectively help prevent heavy fines or
axle overloading by checking on the weight of both axles and taking the gross vehicle
weight. The load is measured by weighing the vehicle when it is first empty and then
loaded, and taking the difference.
 To preserve record for all products and materials entering and exiting the company.
 Aid in farmer’s payment
 Aid in payment of drivers and loaders (for tractors)

The weight that was taken and recorded was as follows;

i. Gross weight which is the total weight of the truck or tractor with sugarcane loaded
on it.
ii. Tare weight which is the weight of the empty tractor or truck.
iii. The net weight which is calculated as follows;
Net weight= (Gross Weight-Tare weight)-160kg

Working Principle of a Weighbridge

Most weighbridges use load-cell systems. These cells are made from durable materials such
as concrete or steel. These cells have strain gauges embedded within or attached to it. These
strain gauges work by transmitting a mild electrical current, which alters when the strain
gauge is altered or compressed. A junction box then picks up this signal and measures the
current variance to give an accurate weight reading.

5
2.2 MILLING SECTION

WESKOL is in possession of two mills. The old FS mill which was acquired from Mumias
Sugar Company in 2007 (mills 180- 200 tonnes of canes per hour) and a new mill which is
capable of milling 300 tonnes in an hour. The old mill is only used if the new mill has a break
down or during maintenance. Both of them cannot work simultaneously due to lack of
enough volume in the process house, wince it can currently accommodate 300 tonnes of raw
juice per house.
2.2.1 Pre- milling
This process involves; offloading of canes from tractors and trucks, conveying and cane
preparation before milling.

2.2.1.1 Cane yard

Here canes are received prior to milling. It is a designated area for cane offloading and
stocking aimed at meeting a daily factory requirement before milling begins.
Cane yard offloading equipment.
 Shovels, bells, grabbers

They pick ground canes and place them on feed tables.

Winch, Hilo and Grabber

Winch offload canes from tractors
Hilo
It is a hydraulic system, which offloads canes from truck trailers to feed tables. They are
capable of lifting up to 40 tonnes weights.
Grabber is also a hydraulic system which can pick canes from ground as well as on trailers.
They are used to collect together canes to occupy a small area.
Feed Table
The feed table accommodates canes depending on the set load. Overweight can cause
stoppage of the feed table. There are four feed tables in each mill. Feed table 3 conveys cane
from trucks by the use of a Hilo. They convey the canes to the cane carrier which travels
carrying canes to the chopper and heavy-duty cutter. The feed table has Hooke like structure
which facilitates movement of sugarcane cane towards the main cane carriers. Each Feed
table has a kicker which oscillates leveling the amount of sugarcane being conveyed to the
main cane carrier.
Transmission equipment

6
Materials in the mills are transferred to the next stage by the use of conveyers. The conveyers
are interlock in that when a specific point breakdown, the other parts behind stop instantly but
the front sections continuous. The conveyer is connected all through with an emergency line
which when pressed stops the whole process. It is only applicable in case of a danger or an
occurrence of an accident. All the conveyers are monitored at the console room. They
include; cane carrier, rake conveyer, belt conveyer, intercarrier and bagasse carrier.
Fibre preparation
The cane is prepared by cutting it into small pieces this increases surface area for juice
extraction by exposing juice out of cane.
2.2.1.2 Chopper
This is a leveller device. It has first moving knives suspended on the upper part of the cane
carrier. It cuts through the top regions of the conveyed canes to level them so that the HD
does not become chocked. The knives are attached to a motor on a coupling and a gear box.
Lubrication is done on the gear box to prevent wear and tear. The knives are frequently check
and changed in case of any brokage.
2.2.1.3 Heavy Duty Cutter
This is a device with incorporated knives. They cut through the cane carrier. This ensures that
all the cane passing through its cut into small segments. The heavy knives are arranged in
such a way that, there are moving and stationary knives. This ensures maximum breakage of
large cane sizes. It is also connected to a motor and a gear box on a coupling. It has fan that
cools the motor to avoid overheating.

2.2.1.4 Shredder
Activity at the shredder
On arrival of the cane fibre at the shredder, the cane fibre is crushed into very fine cane
fibres. The shredder revolves at 1000 rpm. It has about 200 hammers and eight shafts on to
which hammers of 8-10 kgs each are mounted. Its chute has two connected feeder rollers that
oscillates in opposite direction as a result they regulate and align the entering canes to enter
the shredder in a blanket- like form. It also has stationary anvils connected after every line of
hammers. Upon sticking against the hammers, they leave a gap of 75mm thus break canes
into fine fibres. This exposes the juice cells in fibres. The juice cells are the one that stores
juice. The fine cane fibres are generated at very high rate; hence they are carried away by the
rake conveyor into a rubber conveyor belt which leads to the mills.
They shredder has a lubricating oil pump which ensures continuous lubrication and cooling
effects on the gear box. The oil levels are frequently checked and the oil changed upon
exhaustion. It has air conditioner fan which cools the motor throughout when running. The
procedure of starting remains putting oil pump on then the fan before running the shredder.
After which it is allowed to running for 10 minutes before milling begins. At this point its
conditions are checked. Also, for every stoppage, it is inspected of its condition in case of
broken hammers they are changed. Vibrations are detected when hammers break. Then
calibrated depending on the extend of vibrating to know the level of breakage as they cause
weight imbalance that brings about vibrations.

7
Along way, there is a kicker that regulates the amount of fibre passing the magnet (traps any
magnetic material and drops it down after some time) on a conveyer. The fibre is now ready
for milling.
Preparation Index (PI)
This is a percentage taken as the ration of the prepared sample. Example, a sample
of 5 kg is taken, its pol analyzed for 2kg and the other 3kg is further processed and
its pol also taken.
PI = pol for 2 kg: 3 kg

E.g., PI = 9: 10 = 9/10, as percentage is 90%

NOTE: it should always be above 85%
Cane composition
Fiber – 15%
Juice – 85%

Sugar – 18%
Non-sugars and salts – 22%
Water – 60%

Importance of cane preparation.

 To expose juice cells for effective extraction of juice.
 To increase the surface area for maximum action by the imbibition water.

2.2.2 Milling Section

In this section cane fibres cells are pressed and squeezed to extract juice as a result bagasse is
released as a by-product. Bagasse is believed to be of low polarity with 44% water and the
rest is organic matter which adds up to 15%. The process of juice extraction undergoes a
series of milling to enhance maximum juice extraction. Lubrication is done from each mill to
the other to avoid chocking of rollers. Before the fibres are conveyed to rollers, they pass
through a Dornally chute which holds the fibres so that a specific volume of fibres is feed
into the rollers. The first and last mills are in position of pressure feeders which compresses
fibres into a blanket form and direct them to feeder roller. They also reduce chances of
overworking mill one and choking since no lubrications are done for mill 1 and 4.
Comprises of;
2.2.2.1 Hydraulic pressure system.
It is made up of; hydraulic funnel, accumulator, equalizers, pressure top cups (with top
and bottom piston) and pressure pumps.
Maximum juice extraction is achieved through pressure exertion on top rollers of each
cup, causing a systematic upward and downward movement thus pressing fibres against
feed and discharge rollers.
Working Principle of Hydraulic Pressure System.

8
The pump creates pressure by pumping oil to the accumulators. The funnel regulates the
accumulators which are connected to tubing to the top cups. When the top roller is at the
bottom, the accumulators supply oil to top cups. This intern compels the top piston connected
to the roller to move upward. As the top piston reaches its highest point, oils is withdrawn
continuously to the accumulators. This causes downward motion of the top roller. This action
is simultaneous for all pressure top cups as they are all connected to same pressure by help of
equalizers. Repeatedly, this enhances up and downward movement of top roller thus
squeezing juice out of the fibres.
The hydraulic oil is added daily to the pump tank.
2.2.2.2 Cooling and Lubrication System
Every mill has its own lubrication pump, which supplies oil to the gear box of the rollers and
motors to avoid wear and tear. The oil is replaced when it is exhausted.
The fibre is lubricated from one mill to another by use of imbibition juice or imbibition
water. This helps avoid rollers choking effects.
Cold water is continuously pass-through gear box systems of rollers, as a result causing
cooling effect. The water is collected by a common header into a cooling tower then pumped
back to the cooling lines. In case of detectable overheating of cooling water, oil is manually
pumped to the roller’s gears by the help of tubes connected directly.
2.2.2.3 Mill 1
It constitutes of three pressure feeder and four rollers.
Pressure feeders
 Top
 Bottom
 Drum

The top and bottom feeders are connected to a motor and drives the drum (conveys cane
fibres to feed roller).
Rollers
 Feed roller- receives fibre from pressure feeders and is in possession of trash
blade for scrapping off fibers from the rollers.
 Top roller- it is connected to a motor. It drives the other three rollers in
varying direction depending on their position as well as extracts juice from
fibres and pushes the fiber to discharge roller.
 Discharge roller- conveys the bagasse to the intercarrier for second milling.
 Underfeed roller- receives fiber from bottom side and conveys it to the top
roller.

The rollers are corrugated to prevent the sugar fibres from sticking onto their
surface.

9
The juice from mill 3 lubricate bagasse from mill 1 before proceeding to mill 2. The juice
from mill one is collected by a collector plate and stored in a small tank in possession of a
pump which pumps the juice to rotary screen.

2.2.2.4 Mill 2
It has four rollers. Its bagasse is lubricated by imbibition juice from mill four. Harvested juice
from mill 2 is pumped to the rotary screen.

2.2.2.5 Rotary screen

It is an oscillating cylindrical drum used for juice screening and juice mixing. It eliminates
the bagasse in the raw juice and any other solid matter. At its centre, it has screens with small
perforations capable of passing juice through it and a smooth inner service which is
frequently sprayed with hot water. The hot water extracts any juice from the bagasse as well
as cleaning the screen surface for efficiency. Heavy materials are carried to the intercarrier
and the juice collected by a common pipe which conveys it to the sand collector tank. Upon
stoppage the screen is washed by the use of caustic soda and hot water to remove the waxes
on its surface.
2.2.2.6 Sand catcher tank
The tank is constructed in such a way that, juice enters tangentially and has a cone like
bottom. Any sand in the juice settles at the bottom of the tank by the help of centrifugal force
and gravitational pull. Mixed raw juice is collected through an overflow to the mixed juice
tank. The juice is then pumped to process house. Sand is with scrapped off when milling
stops.
2.2.2.7 Mill 3
Has four rollers. Imbibition water is added to enhance maximum extraction. In case of high
sugar traces in mud from clarifiers, it is pumped back here for further extractions.
2.2.2.8 Mill 4
All the remaining juice is extracted at this point. It is in possession of pressure rollers and
four rollers. The juice from mill four is treated with biocide to kill microorganisms,
leuconostic spp, responsible for sucrose inversion. Bagasse is conveyed through bagasse
main carrier to boiler. Bagacillo is eliminated by through screens on the bagasse rake
conveyer as they may extinguish the fire in the furnace and have diverse effect when they go
to the atmosphere. They are used for binding the mud together in rotary vacuum filter. They
are therefore collected and conveyed by pipes to bagacillo feeders in process house.

2.3 BOILER

10
S.A
F.D Air Secondary Primary Bank Tubes
Chimney Induced
preheaters preheaters
Electrostatic preheaters
Air Economizer
Draft Fan precipitator preheaters

This is the section where steam is generated from boiler water to run the turbine (Mechanical
energy) to produce electrical energy as well as used in heating purposes. WESKOL has two
boilers put in place which run simultaneously.
 NHEC boiler- Produces 100 tons of steam in an hour and 12-megawatt power
production to run machines and supply electrical power demand.
 ISGEC- produces up to 80 tons of steam and at most 9-megawatt power.

The steam generated should have a pressure of 42-45kg/cm2 and at 400-450 0C.

2.3.1 Furnace

It is hollow from bottom to the top and works under negative pressure. This ensures water
vapour is not formed and steam is generated at elevated temperatures.

There are two types of furnace, Spreader stopper (It has stationary fire bar grates which are
connected to a man handle which are adjusted after sometime to release the ash to hoopers
which have rotary ash machines that combines the ash with cold water) and travelling
furnace- this type of a furnace is in ISGEC boiler. The grates oscillate slowly into a hopper
line where the ash is damped and carried to a water mixing head. This prevents dust from
escaping to the atmosphere and are also a source of manure. The furnace has a temperature
of about 700- 900 0C. On its walls are vertical connected tubes coming from a common a
horizontal common header from the mud drum and also downcomers carrying water from
steam drum to the mud drum. The risers are thin numerous tubes connected from the bottom
of the furnace to the steam drum. As the water moves downwardly and upwardly, they get
heated and turns into steam which is harvested in the steam drum. The steam is conveyed
through risers to the primary superheaters which are coiled tubes at the top most of the
furnace. The PSH are heated by the flue gases to elevated temperatures. They heat the steam
to 350 0C. The steam at high pressure escapes to Secondary Superheaters (SSH). The steam is
further heated on the tubes to a temperature above 400 0C. both SSH and PSH are connected
to attemperator that cools he coils in case of over heats to avoid melting of the tubes.
2.3.2 Air System
Flow diagram

2.3.2.1 ID fan
Induced draft fan used for parching to remove the combustible materials, before starting up
the furnace, which can lead to furnace explosion. It is also used for cooling. It carries away
flue gases/hot gases. It is compounded on a motor by coupling with a gear box attached

11
which aids in rotation. The gear box is continuously lubricated. The fan is covered with a
casing and has fins/impellers that create the draft/vacuum. NOTE: there should be a balanced
draft between the FD and ID and mostly works at -2mmWc. Manometer is the device used to
measure the draft. A lot of cooled air lowers the draft to a value lower than -2. If it is so high
above +2 backfiring will be experienced.
2.3.2.2 Forced Draft (FD) fan
Has impellers mounted on a gear box connected to coupling on a motor and revolves at the
rate of the motor. Value Frequency Driven (VFD) can be brought up or down. It draws air
from the atmosphere at around 30rtp. It is meshed which prevents big particles from entering
the fan. It pumps air through the APH (Air Preheaters) which raises temperature of air to 200
0
C by heat exchange principle. As flue gases pass outside the APH tubes and cold air passes
inside in a counter current flow, heat is lost from the flue gases to oxygen in the tubes. It
provides oxygen for combustion in a spreader stopper furnace. It also keeps bagasse
suspended as they should not fall on the grates. It has a draft of about 30mmWc. It is a
balanced draft but reduces due to frictional effect.
2.3.2.3 SA fan
Draws air from atmosphere and pumps it through a common header to the furnace. For
ISGEC air goes through APH but in NHEC it is directed to the furnace to spread the fuel in
the combustion chamber. It breaks bagasse into small portions. It also creates turbulence
within the furnace as well as suppressing the unburnt bagasse for them not to escape to the
atmosphere.
2.3.3 Fuel System
They use renewable source of energy which is bagasse from canes.
C + O2 CO2 + heat
The heat released with the flue gases is used to heat water into steam.
The company produces 36 tonnes of bagasse for every 100 tonnes of canes crushed. 1kg of
bagasse when burnt is expected to produce 2.2 kg of steam.

12
 DRTR
Storage Economizer Steam Drum downcomer
Tank s
(Demineraliz
ed water)

2.3.3.2 Flue gas flow

Hot gases move up the furnace to the preheaters where they heat steam and elevate Air
temperature. Due to the draft in the furnace, they are trapped towards the economizer. Here
they travel outside water tubes as a result heat exchange takes place. They flow to the APH
system preheating the atmospheric air in. The gases pass the Main Dust Controller (MDC).
The particles within the flue gases are charged by ionised environment in their way through
the MD. The charged particles are trapped by positively charged plates which after
accumulation, they are scrapped off then cooled using cooled water and transported to farms
as manure. Throughout, the temperature of the flue gases goes decreasing to 150 0C as it exits
the chimney.

2.3.4 Water System

The water used in the boiler is supplied from river Isikhu to the DM (Demineralisation)
plant in order to achieve the boiler water parameters. i.e.
Ph- 9-10
Hardness- nil
Sugar trace- nil
TDS- <400
Dissolved salts- nil
The water is the pumped to DM tanks which supply the water to surface tank. Here the DM
water is heated by condensate from evaporator body one to a temperature above 90 0C. This
tank supplies its water to feed tank for ISGEC and NHEC boiler.

2.3.4.1 Water System Flow Diagram

13
Turbine Feed tank
Primary & Steam drum Furnace Mud drum
Secondary walls
preheaters (Risers)

2.3.4.2 Feed drum

This is a cylindrical tank which receives water from DM plant or from evaporator
condensates. It is connected directly to a deaerator which pumps in exhaust vapours into the
water. This removes any oxygen present in water and also raises the temperature to 105 0C.
Low dosing pressure pump is connected here to add in sodium sulphite which scavages any
remaining oxygen. Hydrazine through best performing is not used since it carcinogenic and
not recommended for use in food industries. From here the water is pumped to the
economizer common header.
2.3.4.3 Economizer.
Water from feed tank passes inside the tubes while flue gases pass outside in a counter
current flow. It is a gas to liquid heat transfer process through radiation. The water is heated
to about 180 0C- 200 0C.it has two chambers first chamber and second chamber.
2.3.4.4 Steam drum
The water from economizer second chamber proceeds to the steam drum. It is divided into
two, a steam chamber and water chamber. It has a gauge glass that shows the level of water to
steam. It should not exceed 50 percent and the boiler should not start if its below 30%. The
water is conveyed to the mud drum through downcomers. While steam passes through a
separator (to separate water from steam) to the primary super heaters the steam is further
heated to 350 0C. It is further conveyed to a secondary superheater that rises the temperature
to 450 0C. The steam escapes through a main stock valve to the steam line and heads to
turbines at 45 bars.
2.3.4.5 Mud drum
It is at the bottom of the furnace and connects tubes to the furnace through a common header
line. The vertical tubes (risers) carry away wet steam to the steam drum. It is connected to a
high dosing pump which adds sodium thiosulphate to the water. This aids in coagulation of
total suspended and dissolved solids, which are blown out through the mud drum blower line.

2.3.5 Boiler Stoppage Process

 Cut off the fuel system
 Switch off the FD and SA fan then reduce the RPM of the ID
 Close water valves so that no water enters the boiler.
 Open the superheaters drainage valves.

14
  Close main stock valve.
 Open the air vent valve.
 Close the ID fan lastly.

2.3.6 Boiler Maintenance

 Damping off all bagasse in the furnace
 Main bagasse carrier and return bagasse carrier check-up.
 Refractory repairs- repair of worn-out walls etc.
 Check frequently the MDC blockage/dusting off

2.3.6.1 Mud drum maintenance

 Open cascades and replace the worn-out ones.
 Cleaning inside
 Replace the outer insulation lining
 Check for flaws in the mud drum and repair them

2.3.6.2 Steam drum

 Check the working condition of the gauge glass.
 Open cascades and replace the worn-out ones.
 Cleaning inside
 Replace the outer insulation lining
 Check for flaws in the mud drum and repair them

2.3.7 Boiler Start Up

 Open water supply valve to feed tank up to 85%water. Make sure the steam drum is at
least 30% water.
 Put logs and small bagasse then lit a fire inside.
 Put ID fan at low RPM.

NOTE: This is the slow firing process.

 Keep increasing the fire and bring the pressure up to 10 bars
 Close main superheater drainage valve.
 Open the fuel system and regulate the amount of bagasse using drum feeders.
 Raise the pressure to 15 bars.
 Close the air vent valve.
 At 20bars open main stock valve.
 Open exhaust steam valve to release some condensate.
 Close when pressure reaches 30 bars.

2.3.8 Boiler Box Up

Box up usually means reassembling something you’ve taken apart. To maintain the boiler
ready for use is relatively simple, on conclusion of firing.
 Shut the stop valve(s).

15
Power tank Cascade
aerator Clear water
clarifier
tank
a
Domestic degasse
 Filltherboiler with sufficient water to avoid
MGF the level dropping out of the glass as the
ACF
water SAC
boiler cools. Dose the water with hydrazine or sodium sulfide as it fills, in order to
scavenge any oxygen in the boiler.
 Close all boiler shell valves.
 Open up the steam heating valves to the water drum (depending on the boiler) in order
to retain the boiler temperature and shorten the time for future firing.
MBF DM H2O
NOTE: if youSBA1 SBA2
are not going to use the boiler for some time, consider opening the air vent and
filling the boiler (again dosing with sodium sulphide) until water issues from the vent, then
dose it. This will cover all the internal surfaces with treated water to avoid corrosion. The
water drum steam coil should be left on (the pressure will not rise over much, but keep an eye
on it to avoid an unplanned hydraulic pressure test). Before use, blow the boiler down to just
show in the glass before firing.
2.4.0 WATER TREATMENT PLANT
Water is treated for domestic consumption and boiler use. WESKOL receives its water from
river Isikhu which is pumped to the company. At the company it is received by two tanks.
Sugar tank- water used in process house
Power tank- water that proceeds for treatment. polymer
hypo coagulant
2.4.1 Water treatment flow chat

Flash mixer

NAOH HCL Morpholine

2.4.1.0 Cascade aerator

Water from the power site is pumped into the cascaded aerator. Here water is exposed to air
to increase its surface area of reaction with air and the escape of bad odour from the water.
Sometimes prepared lime is introduced into the water at this structure. It’s done especially
when the pH of water is low below 7. Lime helps to boost the pH of water suitable for

16
functioning of chemical coagulant in the clarifier. The limed water is passed through hydro
cycling to eliminate mud from the water by a system of sieves.
2.4.1.1 Clarifier
The type of clarifier used is the High-Rate Solid Contact Clarifier (HRSCC). It is responsible
for coagulation and sedimentation of flocs aiding in clarity. Coagulant is added to the flash
mixer depending on turbidity of the raw water. It is responsible for agglomeration of flocs.
Sodium hypochlorite is also added at this stage. It aids in disinfection and bleaching effect.
Polymer is added for binding together of flocs to increase their density thus aids in settling.
Some of the polymers used include, aluminium chloride, ferric chloride and polytetMAC.
Clarifier is the most sensitive part of the plant; therefore, care must be taken always to ensure
it is not contaminated. It is affected by rain thus considerations must be made when adding
coagulants and polymers. In case of heavy rains which raises the turbidity of raw water to
high levels, thrice the normal volume of coagulant, polymer and hypo is used. The clarifier is
made of chambers, stirrer and scrapper. The water moves from the inner towards the
outermost chamber. An outlet channel takes away water from the outermost chamber leading
to the clarified water tank. At the real bottom of the clarifier has a desludging valve that gets
rid of sludge.
2.4.1.2 Clarified water tank (CWT)
This tank holds clarified water waiting to be pumped to the proceeding steps. It has a capacity
scale with an indicator to show the depth of water in the tank. It is connected to a pump
which allows supply of water to the Multi grade filter unit and cooling tower. Cooling tower
water is obtained directly from the Clarified water tank.
2.4.1.3 Multi Grade Filter (MGF) unit
This unit applies the knowledge of home-made filter to filter water. It contains sand, fine
charcoal, pebbles and gravel arranged in sections logically from the most fine at the top to the
course at the bottom. Feed water from the CWT gets here from the top and exits through the
bottom. Suspended solids present in water are removed here.
2.4.1.4 Activated Carbon Filter (ACF)
Receives feed water from the MGF outlet header. It contains activated carbon that aid in
increasing porous sites. Colour, odour and free chlorine are removed at this unit. Domestic
water is collected after ACF. There is inline dosing of chlorine in the domestic water before it
is stored in the storage tank.

2.4.2 DEMINERALIZATION
This involves removal of all sort of minerals present in water i.e., all the cations, anions and
foreign gases present in water.
2.4.2.1 Strong Acid Cat ion (SAC) unit
It receives water from ACF. All cations present in water are removed here. Therefore,
cationic resins are used here, always of the sulphuric group. Equation of the reaction taking
place is attached. Resins react with the salts in water to remove the cations and forming weak
acids such as carbonic acid. This is when in service. During regeneration of resins in the
SAC, Hydrochloric Acid is used to regain the resins in their service state. Further explained
in the reaction equation. The water from here as a pH of 3.5.

17
2.4.2.2 Degasser tank.
Water from the SAC has weak acids such as carbonic acid. This gas is unstable hence it can
dissociate further in presence of air. Therefore, a blower is connected from the side and water
dropping from the topmost of the tank. This allows for counter current reaction to take place.
It leads to formation of carbon dioxide, for instance, when carbonic acid dissociates. CO2
together with other gases such as hydrogen sulphide and carbon monoxide are expelled out
from the tank through an outlet. There are pumps connected to this tank that facilitate
pumping of air. The water from the Degasser tank is then pumped to SBAI for removal of
anions from water.
2.4.2.3 Strong Base Anion (SBA I) unit
Consists of anionic resins that remove strong anions from water. The resins used here are
carboxylic group (R–OH). The hydroxide ion present in resins is replaced by an anion.
Consider for instance, a strong acid, sulphuric present in water. When in service, the
hydroxide ion will be replaced by the sulphate ions. During regeneration, caustic solution
(sodium hydroxide) is used both in SBA I and SBA II. For SBA I, sodium hydroxide reacts
with the loaded resins renewing them. Below are the reactions taking place at the SBA i.

(a)R-OH +H2SO4 R-SO4²- +H2O

N/B The reaction takes place normal service of the unit

(b) R-SO4 +NaOH R-OH + Na2SO4
N/B Takes place during regeneration
2.4.2.4 Strong Base Anionic (SBA II) unit
It receives water from the SBA I. Has Anionic resins that removes weak anions from water.
The resins used here are carboxylic group (R–OH). The hydroxide ion is replaced by an
Anion. In water, there are various compounds having weak anions including: hydrogen
sulphide (HS), hydrogen carbonate (HCO3) and hydrogen siliceous (HSiO3). When in
service, for instance, hydrogen carbonate, the hydroxide ion will be replaced by the carbonate
ions. During regeneration, sodium hydroxide reacts with the loaded resins. Below are the
reactions taking place at the SBA.
2.4.2.5 Mixed Bed
For final polishing, water is then passed through mixed bed MB, which contains a mixture of
Cat ion and anion resins. The residual sodium ion slips from SAC and SiO2 ion from SB is
further removed in MB ensuring the desired treated water quality.
NOTE; morpholine is used to boost the pH of DM water to 10.

2.4.3 Regeneration and Recharging

The regeneration of SAC and SBA is carried out in a counter current mode. In counter
regeneration acid/caustic is passed in opposite direction that of normal service flow of water.

18
This keeps the bottom most layer of resin in highly regenerated form, which ensures
consistently low cation, anions and silica slip throughout the service cycle.
The regeneration of MB is carried out by dosing acid and caustic simultaneously or
individually. MB will be regenerated with desired OBR (Output Between Resins) or Change
in Outlet Parameters.
For regeneration of SAC, SBA and MB, ejector system is provided. Degassed water is used
in regeneration of SAC. DM water is used for regeneration of SBA and MB.
Regeneration system comprises of the following items:
i. Acid unloading pumps (P5–A/B) for transferring acid to BAT.
ii. Bulk Acid Tank (BAT) for storing 33% HCl.
iii. Acid Measuring Tank for SAC (AMT–A) the acid taken in this tank by gravity for
regeneration of SAC.
iv. Acid Measuring Tank (AMT–B) the acid taken in this tank by gravity for regeneration
of MB (cation resin)
v. Bulk Caustic Tank (BCT) for storing 47% NaOH.
vi. Caustic Unloading Pump (P6–A/B) for transferring caustic to BCT.
vii. Caustic Dilution Tank for SBA(CDT–A) the caustic taken in this tank is used for
regeneration of SBA.
viii. Caustic Dilution Tanks for MB (CDT–B) the caustic taken in this tank is used for the
regeneration of MB.

2.4.4 Backwashing
Important valves used in backwashing are:
 Air inlet valve
 Air vent valve
 Backwash inlet valve
 Backwash outlet valve.
Backwashing in MGF helps to expel all the suspended solids. In SAC, WBA, SBA and MB
backwashing aids in separation of resins.
2.4.5 Water analysis
At every step of water treatment, a sample is taken for laboratory analysis. Which includes;
 Old and new boiler water
 SK condensate water
 Super saturated steam
 Feed water
 Saturated steam
 ACF H2O
 SAC H2O
 Degasser water
 SBA water

19
  Mixed bed water
 DM water.

The parameters being tested for water include the following:

 Turbidity/ clarity

 pH of water
 Conductivity
 Total dissolved substances (TDS)
 Total suspended solids TSS (880nm)
 Phosphates (phosver 4)
 Silica: Low Range and High Range
 Nitrates
 P– alkalinity (phenolphthalein)
 T–alkalinity (total) methyl
 Total hardness (TH)
 Sulphates
 Iron– furrower hatch
 Copper – curve.
Procedure for silica test for Low Range
•Into 2 empty cuvettes, measure 10ml of the sample.
•Add 14drops of Molybdate 3 Reagent to each sample.
•Swirl to mix and start the timer- A 4 minute’s reaction will begin.
•Add citric reagent and swirl to mix, A 1min reaction will begin.
-the destruction of possible phosphate interference occurs.
•Add contents of one amino acid F reagent to one sample, swirl to mix
•Blank preparation
-the sample without amino reagent is the blank
•Start the timer
A two minutes reaction will begin. Blue color will develop if silica is present
•Wipe the blank and insert it into cell holder in spectrophotometer. This will enhance Zero
the machine, it will display 0.000mg/LSio2
•Wipe the prepared sample and insert and read the results in mg/LSio2

20
Procedure for silica test in water (High Range)
•Reagents: citric acid, Acid (RGT) and Molybdate
•Take two cuvettes, one for standard (A) and for Blank (B)
•To cuvette (A), measure 10ml of the sample also 10ml to (B)
•To (A) add molybdate
•Add Acid RGT to (A) and set spectrophotometer and wait for 10mins
•Immediately the spectrophotometer alarms you that the set time 10mins set earlier have
elapsed add citric acid and wait for 2mins
•There after zero the spectrometer by use of a blank sample
•Place the standard sample, the resulting reading reflects silica content in the tested water.
Principle Of spectrophotometer performance, light absorbance and penetration
NOTE: high range silica test is done for boiler water only.
: low range silica test is done for the other samples.
: sugar trace is done for SK water only.
: analysis is done after every three hours.

2.5 EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANT

Effluent treatment plant in the factory deals with the treatment of waste water before
releasing it into the water stream. It receives effluent water from the factory. The main
sources of raw water in the factory are; Process 90%, Mills and Boiler. This water is so
harmful to the environment. In soil it is an enzyme inhibitor because it is acidic. It is also an
air pollutant because of its bad odor. From the various sources, the raw water effluent is
released to flow through an open gutter. This allows cooling of the raw water so that it may

21
 screen
shock load
chamber oil skimmer
raw effluent
(1) lime,urea,
not harm life when released into the river. The components of raw effluent include; Sugar,
DAP,
bagasse silo, ash, molasses, chemicals e.g., caustic soda, HCl, oil. Phosphoric
addition
from process,
2.5.1 Effluent Treatment Flow Chart
boiler and mills
equalization screen
tank chamber (2)

secondary primary Primary

primary clarifier tube settling
aeration (3) aeration (2) aeration (1) tank

secondary secondary secondary chlorination

chamber multi grade filter
aeration (4) clarifier
aeration (5)

treated water
to River/ wetlands pond
stream

22
There are also organic load present in raw effluent. Sugar in raw effluent also constitutes the
organic load. The lower the pH. The higher the organic load the higher the Chemical Oxygen
Demand, COD hence the higher the Biological Oxygen Demand, BOD. This makes the
effluent water acidic.
2.5.2 Screen Chamber.
The raw effluent first flows through the screen chamber. This is the initial stage of effluent
treatment. Here large insoluble substances in water are by means of a screener.
2.5.3 Oil Schemer
The screened water flows through the oil chamber. It has an oil schemer/separator which
removes oil from water. When the COD of the screened water is found to be high or its
temperature high, it is channelled to the shock loading pond.
2.5.4 Shock Load
This is a large tank that holds the screened effluent water. In case the organic load is high, the
water is not allowed to proceed to equity tank. It is first stored in shock tank for dilution to
lower its COD.
2.5.5 Equalization Tank
The screened water with the low or normal COD is directly allowed to flow into the
Equalization Tank [EQT]. After the shock loading tank, there is dosing of lime to the effluent
water before it drains into the Equity Tank. This chemical raises the pH of the water to
neutral. The pH of water is maintained at neutral since it is conducive for sludge formation.
Urea and DAP is fed into the water entering the equity tank through a drainage line. The
fertilizers provide food for aerobic microorganism for growth and reproduction. This effluent
is then pumped to the DSM tank; where it is screened to eliminate some fine insoluble
particles. The screened effluent then flows into the tube settler through a base inlet. Here the
mud and insoluble particles settles at the bottom while water raises through over flowing
from the top. The organic load is also reduced here. Therefore, as water gets into aeration
points, it is less of insoluble particles.
2.5.6 Primary Aeration and Clarification.
There are two consecutive aeration ponds, the first and second primary aeration ponds. There
are acetogenic and methanogenic bacteria, at these ponds which feed on the organic matter
such as sugar in water. The feeding action is simply aerobic which require oxygen. Therefore,
there are two motors at each aeration pond which expose water which expose water into air
for maintained oxygen supply. Dosing of dissolved DAP increases the phosphates while
urea/CAN increase nitrate in water. These two chemicals are economical for the growth of
bacteria and activate their functioning. The breakdown of the organic components leads to
formation of sludge thus making the water browner in colour.
The role of bacteria at the second aeration pond is less compared to the first aeration pond.
This is because more organic compounds have been fed by the bacteria at the first aeration
pond. By taking a sample of water at these ponds, when the sludge is present and settles fast,

23
simply shows the bacteria present. Thus, the lower the sludge content the lower the bacteria
load and vice versa. Sludge range is usually 600. It should not exceed this value. If it does,
desludging action is taken This biological action makes the effluent at the primary aeration
ponds to ferment and produce bad odour.
Characteristics of water with sludge are; Very brown in color and settles fast.
The effluent, now less of organic matter drains into the primary clarifier. Sludge is separated
from water. The sludge being denser than water settles at the bottom of the clarifier as clear
water overflow at the top and channelled into the secondary aeration ponds.
2.5.7 Secondary Aeration and Clarification.
Secondary aeration ponds constitute of 3 consecutive ponds; 3 up to 5. Each pond has two
motors and their operation is just similar to the working principle of the primary aeration
ponds. At these ponds there is less bacterial action compared to the first two aeration ponds.
The role of bacteria reduces from pond 1 to 5. This is simply due to decrease in organic load
in water which has been eliminated in the previous aeration ponds.
This effluent water from secondary aeration pond 5 drains to the secondary clarifier. It can
either pour to secondary clarifier A or both A and B depending on water capacity. These
clarifiers enable settling of sludge at the bottom and clear water floating at the top. The
sludge of the secondary clarifiers may be discharged at either primary or secondary aeration
ponds. The partially clear water from the clarifier flows into the chlorination chamber.
Addition of chlorine [sodium hypo chloride] in this water helps to bleach, sterilize and
remove odour in water. It is then pumped into two multi grade filter [MGF] unit tanks. Here
it is filtered to remove dusts and some impurities in water. MGFs have sectional media of 5
different sizes that performed filtration.
The filtered water is released to the pond water treated tank. This holds the treated water
before it gets into the wetlands. The plant simply has a constructed wetland made of a series
of 6 ponds. There is meandering of the channels leading into the pons from one to another.
The meandering allows aeration and removal of bad odour. The ponds have some plant
species and fish to absorb nutrients, mud/dust and colours. They are shallow to allow sunlight
penetration for photosynthesis of the plant species. The final water from the sixth pond is the
treated effluent which is released to the river. It is free from toxic substances, nutrients and
other harmful substances. Therefore, it is safe with no adverse effects with river water.
N/B
There are two types of wetlands
(a)Constructed wetland (present in west Kenya)
(b) Natural wetland
Importance of aquatic animals in wetlands
•Act as indicators /evidence that the water is free from acidity and is safe to release
•Trap moving particles and substances in water
•Absorb available nutrients in water e.g., phosphate

24
 Buffer tank CCT CAT screening
Water Equalization
dam tank
chamber MBBR
Bagasse lands ACF MGF
AGS
Secondary clarifier
All aerations give room for oxygen dissolving
Aquatic animals and plants involved here can be e.g.:
CAT tank
Fish and Water hyacinth respectively.
Primary clarifier
UNBSRT 2.6 LEACHET WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT TREATED WATER
ETP SECONDARY TANK
AERATOR TANKS
This plant deals with leached acidic water from packed bagasse. When it rains, a lot of water
seeps from the bagasse. It is collected into a dam through gravity. It is then pump to LTP
plant for treatment. The treatment here is mostly pH boosting.

2.6.1 LTP Flow Diagram

Flash tank

Heat exchanger

25
2.6.2 Convectional Aerator Tank (CAT) Chamber
Leached water from bagasse water dam is pump to a screening chamber to eliminate any
solid materials carried along. This water is black in colour free from bagasse and other
contaminants. It has a high COD of about 4000 as well as high BOD due to high organic load
in it. Its pH averages 3.3.
2.6.3 Flash Mixer
It is a small chamber where heavy polymer and coagulant are added to aid in flocculation and
coagulation. It has a stirrer that mixes water with the polymer, coagulant and a flocculant.
These chemicals are prepared in small tanks then drained off slowly into the inlet water line.
They are prepared depending on the level of contamination. Usually done by performing a jar
test and analysing the concentrations with best settling activity. It is usually done in a 1000ml
beaker. Scaling up is then done for the volume of the tank and the volume of water treated in
a day.
2.6.4 Equalization Tank
It is a tank responsible for pH conditioning. Rock Alum is added into the tank depending on
the volume of water and its Ph. It raises the pH to neutral. Agitator are connected to the tank
that ensures homogenous mixing.
2.6.5 Primary Clarifier
This aids in coagulation and settling of the formed flocs which are desludged after sometime.
It is connected to a stirrer that enhances circular uniform flow of water which aids in
agglomeration of flocs to form big particles which settle at the bottom of the clarifier.
Clarified water is collected through overflow collector line and directed to heat exchanger.
2.6.6 Heat Exchanger
The water from the dam has a temperature of about 30 0C depending on the room temperature
of that day. The temperature is boosted to about 40 0C by passing it through a heat exchanger.
The heat exchanger operates by taking in air, then heating it via coils then using the hot air to
raise the water temperatures.
2.6.7 Buffer tank
It boosts the working environment of the bacteria. Urea and DAP is added as food for
microorganisms. Hot water is also added to maintain the temperature of water at the buffer
tank. The tank is under disturbance to mix the content thoroughly with water.
2.6.8 Anaerobic Blanket Sludge Reactor Tank (UNBSR)
This tank contains high levels of sludge at the bottom habited by anaerobic microorganisms.
Waste water flows from the lower end. The outlets are connected at the uppermost end.
Desludging tubes are connected to the top in case high levels of sludge are noticed. The
bacteria feed on the organic matter through anaerobic respiration yielding pyruvic acid. The
acid is further converted to lactic acid. The bacteria use oxygen that is found in the organic
materials within the water. This process is important as it is able to stabilise water with little

26
biomass production. They key microorganisms are methane formers and acid formers. The
acid formers are microorganisms that create various acids from the sludge. Methane formers
convert the acids into methane. The continuous system continuously produces biogas as the
micro-organisms feed on the biodegradable materials. The methane gas produced is burnt in
free air to Carbon (IV) Oxide and water. This reduces the levels of COD to <1000.
2.6.9 Convectional Aeration Tank (CAT)
This tank contains inoculated aerobic bacteria that break down organic matter to carbon IV
Oxide and water. They are attached to media (cock-like floating material) that increase the
surface area for their action. The equation below explains aerobic respiration process.
C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O.
Oxygen is provided by use of compressors with tubing connected down the tank. They induce
bubbling effect. The tank is also sliding from the inlet end to enhance maximum aeration.
2.6.10 Secondary Clarifier
Used for sludge settling and recovery for recirculation by the use of pumps or damping the
sludge away if it becomes voluminous.
2.6.11 Moving Bed Bio Reactor
The water with sludge is kept on disturbance. The tank containing microorganisms that feed
on the remaining contents of organic matter. Here there are less volumes of sludge and
microorganisms due to low levels of COD and BOD. More aeration is achieved in this stage.
2.6.12 Chlorine Contact Tank
Chlorine in the form of Calcium hypochlorite is added to the tank. It is responsible for odour
removal, disinfection and bleaching. Light polymer and coagulant are added here
2.6.13 Accelerated Gravity Separator (AGS)
It has same operation as a clarifier with a stirrer in it. It helps in sludge recovery from MBBR
tank. and in water clarity as flocs are withdrawn from the bottom.
2.6.14 Activated Carbon Filters
Acts as adsorbent for removal of colour, odour and chlorine.
2.6.15 Multi Grade Filters
Filters off suspended particles and mud from water. It is backwashed in case of a difference
in OBR.
2.6.16 Treated Water Tank
Stored treated LTP water. When the volume increases the treated water is pumped to ETP
secondary Aerator tank 5. The water from here as a pH of 7.5-8, COD-150 and BOD- 30.
2.6.2 Sludge Disposal
2.6.2.1 Mud Sump
It is a tank that contains agitators. Excess sludge is pumped here then thoroughly mixed with
water before being separated by a centrifugal machine.

27
2.6.2.2 Continuous Centrifugal Machine.
It separates sludge from treated water. The water is conveyed in pipes to drying pond, which
have algae in them. The algae feed on nutrients in water and add dissolved oxygen to the
water. After some days of dilution, the water from ponds is pumped back to secondary
aerator tank.

2.7 PROCESS HOUSE

2.7.1 Process Control Room
It is a room with computers that have application which monitors all the processes in the
process house. The computers are controlled by a specialised who adjusts the inlet juice
valves, steam flow from the turbine, sweet water flow, steam flow rate to the centrifugal,
crystallizers, monitors brix of the syrup, detects temperatures and pH of the juices and also
monitors continuous pan.
2.7.2 Juice Treatment
Juice treatment involves juice clarification and separation methods. Mixed juice is made up
of the following composition:
 Sucrose
 Mud
 bagacillo,
 organic coloring matter
 water
 reducing sugars
 wax
 microorganisms.

The methods employed in defecation process involves, heating at elevated temperatures by

the use of heaters, addition of phosphates ions, disinfection, clarification and evaporation.
The main unit operations here are clarification and evaporation.

28
 Flash
tank Liming
Clear juice tank
Weighment Syrup
tank
tank clarifier tank

Limed juice
2.7.2.0 Juice Treatment Flow Diagram tank
Secondary heaters primary heaters

Telescopic valves

Clear juice heaters

Multi effect evaporators

29
2.7.2.1 Weighment Tank
The tank is incorporated with flowmeter sensors that detects the volume of juice in the tank
and sense the signal to computers in the process control room. at any time. The juice enters
mixed juice tank with a pH of 5.4 and at 30- 35 0C. Phosphoric acid is added to the juice to
boost its concentration to 350 ppm. The Phosphates concentration in sugarcane varies
depending on the kind of soil grown on. Biocide is also added to kill the microorganisms
causing sucrose inversion to glucose and fructose. The leuconostic spp bacteria activity on
sucrose inversion are favoured by low temperature and low pH environment. Biocide is made
of chlorine compounds. When mixed with water, it forms hypochlorous acid which eats away
the cell walls of the bacteria, causing membrane permeability. Water flows into the cells of
the bacteria through osmosis, thus, the cells burst and the microbes die.

2.7.2.2 Heaters
Heaters functions to raise the temperatures of the juice. They are made up of a calandria body
filled with vertical tubes in 2 compartments and 6 chambers in each. Juice flows through the
first compartment with 6 chambers in the first chamber. At the 6th chamber, the juice
overflows to the second compartment first chamber and leaves at the sixth chamber.
Throughout heat is exchanged from a hotter media to a cold media. They are connected by a
double bit valve and a temperature gauge is connected on the outlet line. They have air vents
to allow hot noncompressible gases escape.
2.7.2.2.1 Raw Juice Heaters
Juice is pumped from the weighment tank to primary juice heaters. It is made up of 4 heaters,
where only two operate and the other two are standby heaters. In the 1st stage heating, the
juice temperature is raised from its room temperature to 450C by application of pan
condensates. In the second stage heating, the juice temperature is raised to 720C by the use of
3rd body vapours. The temperature is rise to increase the reaction rate of calcium ions with
phosphate ions in the liming tank. The condensate is connected directly to the sweet water
tank.
NOTE: Higher temperatures that this would result to sucrose inversion without the action of
microorganisms.
2.7.2.2.2 Secondary Juice Heaters
They are five heaters. It aids in clarification through heating and evaporation. Two are
functional at any time and the others are stand by. In the first stage heating, limed juice is
heated to 960C by application of 2rd body vapours. In the second stage heaters the
temperatures are raised to 1050C, and uses 1st body vapours. The juice flows to the flash tank.
2.7.2.2.3Tertiary Heaters
They are three heaters operating in parallel. As the juice leaves clarifiers, its temperatures
drop, due to high retention time at the clarifier and in clear juice tanks enhancing heat loss
and also heat loss in pipes. The clear juice leaves clear juice tank at a temperature below

30
1000C. Heater is used to raise the juice temperature to 1020C by the use of exhaust steam.
Clear juice should not enter the evaporators with a lower temperature, if this happens the
temperatures at the calandria will drop causing inefficiency in boiling and also contraction in
pipes which will cause high velocities in juice flow.
2.7.2.3 Liming Tank
It is a cylindrical tank with a low juice retention time. It is used to enhance maximum lime
conditioning of raw juice. Milk of lime is added on the top of the tank by the use of pumps in
the lime tanks. The lime is continuously agitated to ensure it maximumly dissolves in water.
It is added to raw juice flowing through gravity by junction pipe connecting pipe coming
from raw juice heaters. The pH of the juice from this tank is at 7.4. The reaction here
proceeds as follows;
2.7.2.4 Limed Juice Tank
This is an open tank that allows escape of vapours and gases. It also gives more room for
liming reaction.
2.7.2.5 Flash Tank
Juice enters tangentially to this tank. this reduces the flow rate of the raw juice, which may
cause disturbance on the clarifier. It has air vent to allow vapours escape through the top. It is
conical at the bottom end. This enhances large particles to agglomerate and flocs formation.
If vapours are not effectively eliminated, they cause buoyance effect at the clarifier. This
results to floating of the flocs at the clarifier which causes ineffective clarification. Juice
flows from the bottom of this tank through a siphon. This reduces the velocity of juice to the
clarifier. A flocculant is added from flocculation tank to the pipes. The flocculants used are of
polyacrylamide type. They include:
 melfloc
 kemira
 R-300
 Bufloc
 Separan
 Flopam

They function by coagulating suspended particles into flocs which bind together to form
bigger particles, by the aid of the polymer, and settle bottom of the clarifier since they have a
high density than juice.

31
2.7.2.6 Clarifier
Juice clarification at clarifier

motor Skirt plate Deflector plate

Metal scrapers shaft

Central rotating pipe

Mud booth Mud drum

Mud remover line

The operation of clarifiers is to clarify juice by coagulation of flocs into larger ones that form
mud which settle at the bottom. It has a motor on the top and a shaft running to the bottom
attached to a mud booth. This causes centrifugal force and gravitational force which separates
materials depending on densities. The lighter materials settle at the top while heavy ones at
the bottom. The shaft has holes in each of the chambers which feeds juice to the four
chambers. When the juice if filled for clarifier 1 it overflows to clarifier 2. The clarifiers have
a scum chamber at the top which harvests any form in juice which may affect clarification
process. Form is due to reaction of CaO with other chemicals in the juice. The shaft is
connected to a skirt plate in each chamber. The skirt plates enhance reduce the falling force
of the juice thus reduce disturbance in the mud booth. The shaft is also connected to the
deflector plate which ensures uniform spreading of juice in a chamber. The mud booth
collects mud at the bottom of each chamber. It is connected directly to mud outlet valves in
each chamber. The outlets valves pour mud to a common header which conveys the mud to
mud-receiver tank. Each chamber has four compartments from which levels of separation are
checked. Compartment 1,2, and 3 have telescopic valve for discharging clear juice. If the
level of mud exceeds the second compartment, clarification begins failing, therefore, there is

32
a need for mud discharging from compartment 3 and 4 using mud discharge valves. The top
part of the clarifier has a pipe coil that collects overflow clear juice to the liquidation line.

pH is continuously monitored at the clear juice collector tank, connecting the common header
line, by the use of a litmus paper. The pH of juice should be neutral. Phosphoric acid is added
to the clear juice before proceeding to clear juice tank to increase the polarity of the juice.
The clear juice from the three clarifiers proceeds to clear juice tank for storage. The mud is
pump to a rotary vacuum filter for juice recovery and filter cake extraction. The clear juice is
then pumped form clear juice tank via clear juice heaters to evaporators.

It is a long retention time clarifier of Rapi Dorr 444 model. The company has three working
clarifiers and one short retention time clarifier that is yet to be commissioned. The retention
time for these clarifiers is 2-3 hours.
2.7.2.7 Evaporators
WESKOL has three sets of evaporators, A, B, C. Set B and C has 5 evaporators each while
that of A has six evaporator bodies. The evaporators bodies are those of Semi Keshner model.
The evaporator is made of;
 Saucer
 Calandria
 Holder
 Dome

Evaporators diagram dome

Brick like material

Down take

Sweet juice remover catch hole

Sight glass holder

Steam/vapour in

Tubes Calandria

Deflector plate Saucer

Juice intake

Condensate remover line

Juice outlet

33
Dome
It makes up the upper part of the evaporator. Vapours from calandria move up the
evaporators to the dome. It contains brick like materials at the top. Due to variation in
temperatures below water boiling point, water vapour condenses and drops down the
calandria to preheat the juice. It is collected at the saucer by condensate tubes. Vapour
bleeding is applied by harvesting the hot vapours and directing them to the next evaporator.
This helps to conserve energy.
SK body 1,2 and 3 are used in vapour bleeding. The common header from dome has a
condenser box for harvesting condensates that escape the brick like materials, the
condensates are returned back to the evaporator. Vapours for SK 4 and 5 are conveyed in
vapour common headers to a condenser.
Condenser
It is used for vacuum creation in evaporators and pans.
Hot vapours from evaporator body 4,5 and pans flows to the condenser. The condenser is
made up of a vertical descending header carrying vapours in it. A horizontal pipe with cold
water at high velocity. The cold water meets vapours in a junction with high surface area than
the outlet. As a result, the vapours are contracted instantly and creates an empty space above
it. A vacuum line is connected at the junction to the evaporator or pan body, thus draws any
materials i.e., air to the condenser creating vacuum in the body.
Holder
It is the body of a rising film type evaporators. It is where evaporation takes place. It has
watch glasses for checking the syrup brix and the temperature of evaporators body. When
juice is heated, it boils from the calandria tubes to the holder losing vapours to the dome,
while the boiled juice is collected at the down take or in a gutter, connected on the walls of
SK body 1. The height of the holder gives room for water vapour to condense and flow back
to the saucer.
Calandria
It is occupied by vertical tubes of 4m height. Juice is fed from the bottom of the calandria
until juice occupies fully the calandria tubes. Vapour or steam flows to the tubes through
calandria. Juice boils above the calandria back and forth until the juice concentrates.
Concentration of juice to syrup is achieved by series flow of juice from the first body to the
5th body. The discharge line is connected to a discharge valve that regulates the flow of juice
from one body to another. Over brix of the syrup causes crystal formation at the syrup tank
which forms amorphous crystals and also may block pipes to the syrup feed tank.
Saucer

34
It is the bottom part of an evaporator. It has connected pipes that collects condensate from the
bodies and conveys condensates to a condensate Mond. A Mond is a condensate storage tank
with a pump that transfers condensates to sweet water tank.
Evaporator body 1 for Set A conveys its condensate to a condensate tank. The tank removes
vapours from the condensate and pumps it to boiler surface tank. This water has no sugar
traces in it.
Evaporator body 1 Set B conveys its condensate to surface tank directly.
Evaporator 1 Set C has a condensate cigar. Condensate flows through a U pipe that reached
the ground and flows back and pours condensate in the cigar just above its inner service. This
enhances maximum vapour elimination to the atmosphere. The condensate flows twice with
this mechanism and passes through a pump which supplies the condensates to surface tank.
SK body 1 evaporators use exhaust steam from turbines for boiling. The steam is at 1200C
and pressure of 1.2 bars. Their vapours are used for pan boiling in C- boiling. The bodies and
their calandria work under low pressure.
SK body 2 evaporators use vapours from body 1 and bleeds its vapours for body 3 boiling.
Part of its vapours are used for B- pan boiling. They work under low pressures.
SK body 3 evaporators boil juice from body 2. Their vapours are used for body 4 boiling and
in A-pan boiling. The holder is under pressure while calandria works under vacuum, due to
the effect of SK body four.
SK body 4 evaporators uses vacuum for boiling. Vacuum lowers boiling temperature thus, at
this point the body operates at 900C set point temperature. Excess vapours flow to the
condenser for vacuum creation.
SK body 5 evaporators applies vacuum in boiling. Juice boils here at 600C. Its vapours move
to condenser for vacuum formation.
The multi-effect evaporators work under Rillieux’s principle.
First principle
In a multi-effect evaporators of n effect, 1 kg of steam evaporates n kg of water. Thus, in a
double effect evaporator, 1 kg of steam will evaporate 2kg of water, in a triple effect
evaporator, it will evaporate 3kg of water and so on.
Second principle
If vapour is withdrawn from the ith effect of a multiple effect evaporator of N effects and used
outside the evaporator system in place of steam, the steam saving will be i/N times the
quantity of steam used in this study.
Third principle
Whenever stem or vapour is condensed, provision must be made to withdraw incompressible
gases continuously.

35
2.7.3 Juice Recovery
2.7.3.1 Rotary Vacuum Filter (RVF)
It is a cylindrical drum that oscillates along horizontal axes and uses vacuum to separate juice
from mud in a sugar factor for juice recovery.
Components of RVF
 High and low vacuum vessels
 Mud mixer
 Bagacillo feeder
 Spider tubes
 Copper screen
 Compressors
 Mud trough
 Rubber scrappers
 Oscillating agitator
 Hot water line
 Filtrate tank
 Motor

Mud from clarifiers is pumped into mud tank. the mud is filtered to separate juice from mud.
The polarity of the filter cake is expected to be below 1.5%. The reciprocating pumps draws
mud from mud tank/mud drum to the mud mixer. Bagacillo is continuously added to the mud
mixer through a chute at the rate of 7kg per tonne of cane crushed. The mixer has oscillating
stirrer that thorough mixes mud with bagacillo. This aid to increase the porosity to enhance
maximum sucrose recovery. It also prevents blockage of screen perforations by the mud.
From the mud mixer, mud flows through gravity to RVF trough. The trough has suspended
agitators connected to motor, they ensure homogenous mixing at the trough and that the mud
does not settle in the through. The RVF drum is rotated by help of motors at a revolution of
1/5 to 1/3 per minute. This gives high retention time for juice suction through screen
perforations (the screen has 625 perforations per sq. inch). The surface of the drum is
corrugated to increase mud holding ability. Hot water at 600C is sprayed on the drum to
increase juice extraction rate as low viscosity favours filtration.
The vacuum filter picks at low vacuum as it rotates and goes to high vacuum where juice is
sucked into the capillary tubes (spider pipes) as filtrate where the suction breaks and mud is
scrapped by a rubber scraper and falls to a conveyor to mud bin. Vacuum is created in the
condenser by compressing air and juice. The vacuum passes through filtrate receiver tank
which aid in sucking of juice (filtrate) from mud. The filtrate is pumped to filtrate receiver
tank, filtrate tank and pumped back to mixed juice tank.
The RVF drum is manually scrapped on parched that are seen to be wet at the rubber
scrapping head. The wetness is due to perforation blockage by the mud.
Procedure of starting RVF

36
i. Ensure the light (low) and heavy (high) filtrate valves at the filter drum ends are
closed for fast vacuum creation.
ii. Fill up mud tank by opening the mud valves of the clarifier slowly.
iii. Start bagacillo mud mixer unit
iv. Start bagacillo fan and ensure that it delivers bagacillo to the mud–bagacillo mixer
trough.
v. Start rubber mud conveyor.
vi. Open vacuum filter condenser feed Valve.
vii. Start the vacuum to create vacuum in filtrate tanks
viii. Open spray hot water by opening the valve.
ix. Open the blight filtrate valve slowly to attain pick up and the heavy filtrate to attain
suction

37
 C-centrifugal
B sugar
A-massecuite pan Syrup storage fore
mingler
boiling tank Remelt tank

Molasses
storage
Crystallizer
2.7.4 SUGAR HOUSE
2.7.4.0 Sugar House Flow Diagram
mingler

Pug mill

C-centrifugal c-light
A-centrifugal A molasses
tank
machine receiver tank
after

A wash receiver A-sugar B-massecuite Pan

tank boiling

Hopper B-massecuite
crystallizer
B-molasses
receiver tank
Re-melt tank Drier Pug mill
C- Massecuite
pan boiling
For lump and Grader B-centrifugal
powder sugar
C-sugar crystallizer

Sugar bin for B-molasses

commercial sugar Vertical
C-magma
crystallizer

Weighing and
bagging C-massecuite
crystallizer tank

warehouse
Pug mill
B-magma receiver

38
2.7.4.1 PANS
Pans are used in sugar house for crystal formation, crystal growth and evaporation. They are
divided into three stages: A- boiling, for high grade sugar, B- boiling and C- boiling for low
grade sugar. The expected brix and purity of the massecuites must be achieved best crystal
sizes. Right working parameters must be maintained all through to avoid sugar loss

Diagram

Stirrer driver motor

Vapor body vapor vent

Catcher

Stirrer mother liquor intake

NCG remover body

Heating vapor in

Calandria tube calandria

Condensate remover

Down take

Parts of a pan

 Calandria

The calandria body is occupied by pipes shorter than those of evaporators but with larger
diameter. Heat is supplied at the calandria and boils the liquor on the tubes, the is
convectional flow of the fluids in the pan. Cold materials flow to the bottom while hotter
one’s flow to the top. This circulation helps in crystal growth. The seed for the pan is fed at
the calandria.

 Body

It is a hollow body that creates room for boiling and also for feeding of the pan with
maximum amounts of the mother liquor to enhance high rates of crystal growth. It also

39
provides vacuum in the pan which helps regulate the amount of heat used for boiling thus
overcome sucrose inversion and caramelization of the mother liquor/ massecuite. It also
creates a large surface area for escape of vapours from the juice.

 Dome

It is the upper most part of the pan. It collects exhaust vapours from the pan and conveys
them to condenser for vacuum creation. It has a catcher that traps condensate escaping
with the vapours and drops them to the saucer for withdrawal.

 Vapor line

Pans use vapours from evaporator bodies for heating. Vapour lines from evaporators are
connect to pans via vapour valve. The valves operate to close vapour flow or allow
vapour into the calandria.

 Steam line

Live steam is used to unblock pipes.

 Hot water line

Hot water in form of condensate is used in boiler for lowering brix for massecuites,
hardening grains at intermediate zone of crystallization to dissolve false grains. It is also
used in pans with insufficient materials during boiling to avoid over brix. It is also used to
check the level of materials in the pan flash washing the watch glasses.

 Proof stick

It is used to discharge small contents of materials in pan for brix checking and for sample
collection purposes. It is also used to shocking pan at intermediate zone to induce crystals
by causing disturbance in the pans by inducing air bubbles.

 Wash Out valve/booster

It is a pipe with a valve connected below the dome. It contains vapours that are used for
washing the pan after discharging contents as well as to boost temperature of the pan
before footing.

 Watch glasses

40
 Used to check the levels of materials in a pan.

 Saucer

Collects condensate that are conveyed to a sweet water tank

 Vacuum breaker

Used to withdraw vacuum from a pan before striking massecuites from the pan.

 Discharge valve

High grade pans have pneumatic valves that uses pressure to operate. They are used to
allow massecuites into the crystallizer when striking and also when washing out. It has
discharge and lock valve.

 Cut over valve

They are used to transmit massecuite, grains or magma from one pan to another or from a
receiver to a pan by application of vacuum. It connects pans and receivers for each grade.

 Main feed line

It is used for feeding the pan. It connects materials valves to the pan. It regulates the
amounts of materials entering the pan.

2.7.4.1.1 A- Pan Boiling

The pans used here are the motherboard of the company. They give commercial sugar to the
company. There are three pans used for A boiling. The raw materials used here are: syrup
from evaporators, A- light molasses from A-massecuite, A-heavy and remelt. The pan uses
B-magma as the seed. It influences crystal formation in the pan. Footing is done using B-
magma for brown sugar or remelt for white sugar. after footing to the second watch glass,
boiling is done to concentrate the mother liquor for crystals to start forming this increases the
brix to 90-92%. At this point primary nucleation takes place. Maximum number of crystals
have formed at this point. A glass is used against beam of light to check on the brix and on
existence of false grains. Thinning is the done using hot water until the brix loosens. This
action is to dissolve any false grain which may clog the screens of centrifugal affects its
performance. After thinning is done up to the second watch glass level. Time is given for the
crystals to concentrate for about 30 minutes. When the brix percentage is attained, the pan
content is cut into two, to the level just below first watch glass. This increases surface area

41
for crystal growth by using two pans. The number of grains introduced in a pan do not
change, they just grow. Feeding is then done with either syrup alone for white sugar or with
A-heavy, A-light, syrup and remelt, all rationed. Crystals start feeding on the sucrose
contents in the pan. This happens through forced circulation by use of stirrer and natural
circulation through boiling. Sucrose molecules move through diffusion to coat on the walls
wall of crystals forming layers which grows up to the maximum levels. When the crystal size
is reached due to increased density the crystals move to regions of less sucrose concentration.
The brix percentage increases and it is continuously check until it reaches 90%. After which
striking is done. Samples for cut material and massecuite are taken before striking. The purity
should be 85-86%.

2.7.4.1.2 B-pan boiling

A heavy is used for seeding in B-pans. It is feed using A heavy molasses up to the second
watch glass, then concentrated to the first watch glass. This is the intermediate zone. When
the recommended brix is attained, slurry made up of ultra-fine nano crystals of sugar, is used
for seeding.

Slurry is made by crushing sugar crystals using a ball drum crusher into a thick slurry in
methylated spirit. Methylated spirit a product of isopropyl alcohol is used since it does not
dissolve sucrose. Essential oils can also be used such as glycerol and coconut oil.

After graining, and hardening using hot water to remove false crystals, feeding of the pan is
done using A- heavy or B- molasses in old house pans. Enough time is given for brixing.
They massecuite is then dropped into a crystallizer that feeds continuous pan. The pan cures
B massecuite and increases the brix percentage to 96%.

Continuous pan is used for crystal growth for B-massecuite. It has two modules and 8
compartments where B-massecuites meets A-heavy molasses and small contents of water to
dilute, it reduces chances of over brixing. On a normal working, the first four compartments
are feed with A-heavy open to maximum, the other compartment hot water valves are slightly
opened to allow small volumes of water to the compartments. It has a jigger system that vents
in non- compressible gases which may reduces the vacuum of the pan. They gases helps in
circulating the massecuite through the compartments. It discharges its content into a
horizontal crystallizer that pumps B-massecuite to a vertical crystallizer. The purity of B
massecuite ranges 67-74%

42
2.7.4.1.3 C-Boiling
C- light molasses is used for seeding in this pan. There are four pans used here. The first 3
pans can be used for graining and striking while the last pan used for feeding and striking.
The capacities of this pans are 60 Tones. 5- liters of slurry is added to the pan for graining. A
brix of 98-99% must be attained in C-boiling. Usually, pan3 is used for graining then cuts its
content to any of two of the three pans. It is then washed and graining done again. The cut
contents are fed with B-molasses up to the fifth glass. Concentrating is then done to increase
brix, after which they are dropped. The purity should be 47%

Grains can be achieved here in three ways:

 Use of slurry- this is through introduction of fine crystals into mother liqour
 Waiting- concentrating the mother liquor to super saturation for crystals to form
 Shock method- use of proof stick to cause disturbance in concentrated liquor which
induces crystal formation.

2.7.4.2 Operations in Pans

2.7.4.2.1 Wash Out
i. Close vacuum breaker
ii. Open wash out steam valve
iii. Flash the pan severally by use of discharge valve while on lock. This is done by
accumulating vapor on the pan the releasing it.
iv. Close the discharge valve then the open condenser until the vacuum rises to the range
of 530-600mmHg
v. Close wash out steam valve then lock the pan. The pan is ready for next graining or
feeding.

2.7.4.2.2 Striking
i. Open vacuum breaker valve
ii. Unlock and open discharge valve checking the volume of crystallizers not to pour
the contents outside. Drop all the contents into crystallizer then wash your pan.

Footing- feeding of a seed on a pan for graining

Feeding- addition of mother liquor to grains

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Hardening- washing crystals with hot water to dissolve false grains.

Factors contributing to false grain formation

 High temperatures in the pan

 Low brix due to over washing
 High brix- crystals start feeding on other crystals.

2.7.4.2 CRYSTALLIZERS
Massecuite is stored in the crystallizer momentarily before curing though A-massecuite is can
be cured immediately. The massecuite cools in the crystallizer to temperatures of about 50 0C.
This further enhances formation of sugar crystals. Also, in the crystallizer is a slow rotating
stirrer that prevents the massecuite from settling and hardening.

Low grade massecuite is passed through the vertical crystallizer where it is stored for a
minimum of 21 hours. Vertical crystallizers work by adjusting the temperatures of the
massecuite to 500c. They are long cylindrical vessels with cold water pipes from the bottom
and hot water pipes from the top. Massecuite enters through the top, travels to the bottom and
back through another shell. The overflow discharges in pug mills. This enhances further
crystal formation in low grade sugar.

The massecuite is transmitted to the pug mill where it is also stored momentarily with
continued stirring to enhance further cooling before entering centrifugal.

2.7.4.3 CENTRIFUGAL
Massecuite from pug mill is conveyed through a chute to the centrifugal bottom bulb. The
bulb is spinning at a high velocity. Due to effect of centrifugal force, the massecuite is pushed
to the screen of the basket. The basket is also spinning. The wash valve opens on the set delay
time and sprays hot water on the screen. The centrifugal spins at an increased speed to dry the
sugar. A heavy molasses is collected at first wash at the separator which feeds the A-heavy
tank. After the set spinning time, the bottom bulb is lifted by hood lifter, and the plough sets
to plough off sugar in the basket and moves downwards cutting sugar to the bottom. Sugar
drops to receiving Hooper. The bottom bulb the closes the discharge. Second wash is done to
get A wash molasses.

Separator operates by use of pneumatic valves.

It is called batch because massecuite addition into it is not continuous. It is majorly used in
the separation of A-massecuite to A-sugar A-wash and A-heavy molasses.

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2.7.4.3.1Batch Centrifugal
Works by the action of pressure sensors set on time.

The valve is closes and massecuite is let into the centrifuge. The machine then accelerates
and run for a while a speed of 200rpm. This causes the massecuite to spread evenly to the
side of the screen. Also, excess molasses is separated via the screen to the molasses storage
tank.

It then accelerates to a speed of 1500rpm and void molasses in between the sugar crystals is
separated and moves to the molasses tank. Water of temperature of 1100C is then sprayed on
the sugar and removes molasses on the surface of sugar crystals called A-wash.

2.7.4.3.2 Continuous Centrifugal

It is referred to as continuous centrifugal because massecuite is added to it continuously.

Massecuite is mixed with water at the funnel and flows through the central funnel duct into
the distributor. The distributer distributes massecuite evenly around the centrifugal as well as
retains foreign material around the basket.

The molasses is then separated via the conical screens and moves to the molasses chamber
while the magma is retained and moves upward the conical screen. Magma from the B and C
centrifugal is stored in receiver tanks and used as seed in A and B sugar growth respectively.

2.7.4.4 DRYING

2.7.4.4.1 Hooper
A-sugar at the hopper is moved forward by shaking motion to the bucket elevators where it is
carried to the drier. The drier is a slow rotating horizontal cylinder. Inside it there are hook
like arms that mix the sugar while hot air formed in the radiator is being blown into it hence
reducing the water content. From the drier cold air is blown into the sugar reducing its

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temperature to 40 degrees which is the required temperature for bagging. The sugar is then
carried with a belt conveyer to the grader via an electromagnet which traps the metal
impurities in the sugar.

2.7.4.4.2 Rotary Sugar Dryer (FBD)

It receives sugar through a rotary feeder from sugar elevator. The dryer is made is made up
of;

ID fan- creates vacuum in the dryer pulling sugar from the dryer as well as collecting dust
and transmitting it to a dust dissolver tank.

FD fan- creates air pressure in the dryer which bubbles sugar to allow hot air pass through it
aiding in drying.

Radiator- it is a liquid-gas heat exchanger system. Cold air is pumped by FD fan into the
tubes of radiator, hot water is forced to pass on the tubes of the radiator heating air in. Hot air
controlled by air control dampers, flows through screens below the sugar holder plates and
bubbles sugar crystals on the first two chambers. The first chamber temperature should not
exceed 700C and of the second chamber at 50 0C. The other two chambers are connected with
cold water tubes on the sugar carrier plates. They cool the temperature of sugar to 33 0C this
ensures sugar does not burn the packaging bags. At the outlet of the dryer are two magnet that
traps any metal on sugar.

2.7.4.5 GRADER
Works under the principle of weight imbalance caused by eight crates connected on opposite
sites by a motor. The body of the grader is mounted on springs that enhance vibration due to
high revolving irregular crates. A vibron motor is connected at the top of the grater that
vibrates to spread sugar crystals on grader sieve.

The grader contains three screens which first separate lump sugar, then commercial sugar and
finally fine powdery sugar. The lump and powdery sugar is not suitable for consumption and
is therefore sent to the dissolution tank where water is added to it. It is then conveyed to the
re-

2.8 PROCESS LABORATORY

The work of the laboratory was to prepare reagents as well as to measure parameters of
various samples for quality control purposes. This was done by comparing the parameters
with the set values. Test carried out in the laboratory

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2.8.1 Sugar moisture test
Procedure
20 grams of sugar was accurately measured in an aluminum dish.
It was then placed in an oven for 4 hours.
 The sample was the removed and placed in a desiccator.

2.8.2 Sugar colour test

Procedure
 50% sugar solution was made by weighing 50grams of sugar and it in water in a
100ml volumetric flask.
 Part of the sample was taken and its brix read from a refractometer.
 The solution was then filtered under vacuum through a membrane filter of pore size
0.45mm
 The first filtrate was discarded and the rest was covered to avoid evaporation.
 The spectrophotometer was switched on for about 30minutes
 It was then set at 420 nanometer wavelength and also zero absorbency was set using a
clean tube cell filled with distilled water.
 The same cell was rinsed with the filtrate and filled, inserted and the absorbance read.

2.8.3 pH determination
The electric method was used. This was carried out for the raw juice, limed juice, syrup,
boiler water, service water and the condensate.
Procedure
i. The pH meter was calibrated using a buffer solution.
ii. The sample was then cooled to room temperature.
iii. The electrodes were then rinsed with the sample to be tested.
iv. The beaker was filled with enough sample to cover the bulb of the glass electrode.

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 v. The system was then left to come to equilibrium and the pH read and recorded.
vi. On reading the electrode was washed with distilled water and left in the distilled water
or buffer.

2.8.4 Determination of water insoluble matter in sugar

Procedure
 Filter membranes of pole size 8 micrometers were prepared by boiling them in
distilled water for a period of 30 minutes, put in a dish, dried in a hot air oven at 105 0C
for 1hour and cooled for 30 minutes in a desiccator and weighed. Weight was recorded as
W.
 100 grams of sugar sampled was then weighed in 1000ml glass beaker, 700ml of
distilled water added and boiled while stirring to dissolve completely.
 Solution was then filtered through vacuum filtration apparatus fitted with the above
membranes.
 The residue on membranes shall be dried in hot air oven at 1050C for 1hour cooled
for 30 minutes in a desiccator and its weight was recorded as X

2.8.5 Determination of moisture in bagasse

Procedure
Weight of the tray was taken and recorded as M.
100grams of bagasse or filter cake sample was measured while on the tray.
The tray with bagasse or filter cake was then placed in an oven at 1050C for 3 hours.
The sample was then removed and weighed immediately and recorded as P.
Calculation
Weight of tray=M
Weight of sample on tray=N
Weight of sample dry=P-M=V
Weight loss=N-V

2.8.6 Determination of sugar trace

This was done on the condensate water to be used in the boiler.

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Procedure
 The sample was taken in a test tube and cooled.
 5 drops of 1-naphtol were added and shaken well.
 Concentrated sulfuric acid was then slowly added from the side and checked for the
color of the ring.
 If it was purple then there were sugar traces else if it was green there were no sugar
traces.

2.8.7 Determination of sugar ash

Procedure
 5 grams of sugar were weighed in a platinum dish then moistened with 0.5ml of conc.
H2SO4.
 The sample was then gently heated avoiding overflow of froth by heating both below
and above the dish until the sample is carbonized.
 The sample was then place carbonized sample in muffled furnace at 6500C for
3hours.
 The sample was then removed, cooled and moistened again with conc. H2SO4, put in
a furnace at 6500C and removed to cool in a desiccator to room temperature.

2.8.8 Determination of brix

Sample preparation
Sample was taken and weighed. Water equal to its weight was added to it. Samples included
A-massecuite, B-massecuite, C-massecuite, B-molasses and final molasses.
Procedure
 The prepared whose brix was to be measured was used to clean the refractometer by
rinsing it then it was wiped.
 The sample was the put on the refractometer and the brix was read and the value
gotten was multiplied by two and recorded.

2.8.9 Determination of pol/sucrose content

Procedure
 26 grams of sample prepared above was measured in a volumetric flask and the flask
filled to mark. The flask was then shaken well to mix.

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  The mixture was then placed in a beaker and two spatulas of lead acetate added to it.
The lead acetate acts as a coagulant.
 The mixture was then filtered by a filter paper onto a beaker and the residue disposed.
 The filtrate was first used to clean the pol tube then it was filled into the pol tube to be
used in the Polarimeter
 The polarimeter is calibrated by distilled water to the zero-level using distilled water.
 The flap was then replaced and rotated positively/negatively until the full moon was
reached.
 The pol reading was read multiplied by two and recorded.

2.8.10 Laboratory terminologies

(a)Brix -refer to total dissolved solids in a solution

(b) Polarization (pol)-refer to sucrose content in a solution

(c)Purity - refer to ratio of Brix to pol, its formula (pol)/(Brix)100%

(d) Molarity -it is the number of moles per liter of a solution in 1000ml

(e) Molality- it is the number of moles of a solute per (kg) of a solvent

(f)Normality - it is the number of moles of active ions taking part in a chemical reaction

(g) Juices:

•First expressed juice-Juice from the first and second rollers of the milling tandem

•Last expressed juice- Juice expressed from last two rollers of the milling tandem

•Clear juice -juice that has undergone clarification.

•Mixed juice-

Should be sampled by automatic devices in absence of continuous sampling devices, it should

be sampled from each measuring or weighing tank, the quantity drawn being proportional to

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volume or weight of juice in the tank. It should be such that the volume collected at end of
two hours is about three liters. The analysis should be for each two hours composite.

•Raw juice-this is initial juice that has not undergone treatment

•Limed juice- Juice that has undergone liming process by addition of lime

(h)Filter mud-The material removed from the process by filtration including aid.

(i) Filtrate-Liquid that has passed through the screen or cloth or filter.

(j)Slurry-A mixture methylated spirit with sugar crystals

2.8.11 Procedure for slurry preparation

(a)Ensure that the Boll mil machine is clean with methylated spirit

(b) Measure 2.5kg of sugar and drive it to machine by help of its funnel on top of it

(c) Measure 3litres of methylated spirit, drive it inside the machine via funnel

(d)Start the machine, check and remove it after six hours of a solution =(Density × Assay ×
1000) / 100x molecular weight Or. M = (density ×Assay ×10) /molecular weight

CHAPTER THREE
3.1 CHALLENGES
During attachment period we as attachees we faced several challenges which include:

 Language barrier – many operates are affected with their mother tongue therefore it’s hard
to understand what’s being taught.
 Insufficient washrooms – the washroom were few and located very far away so accessing
them when were pressed was difficult and their hygiene condition was also poor.
 All the boilers there had a lot of dust and dirt due to bagasse waste and carbon.

3.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
During the Three months of attachment, I felt like the following should be adjusted.

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  Lab attendance should be supplied with masks that protect them from the poisonous
gases and chemicals.
 Workers at the boiler should be provided with goggles due to high amount of dust
produced and un burnt carbon.
 Sufficient wash room should be built to create favorable working environment to
workers.

3.3 CONCLUSION
My experience at west Kenya Sugar Company was very enriching. I was able to relate
classroom theory to practical situation by assimilation of theoretical information which was
otherwise hard to picture without its practicality. I also got some experience of how an
industry operates and the different responsibilities expected of me as well as different
problem-solving methods.

Aspects acquired include:

a. We were able to go through most of the unit operations.

b. Steam generation, at the boiler we learnt various concepts that we had covered in
class about, the quantity of steam to be produced and the pressure needed. We also
learnt the importance of the economizers and air preheaters for efficiency in working
of the boiler by recirculation of condensed water.
c. Heat transfer, we learnt on the importance of controlling the amount of heat to be
transferred to the material from the heating steam in the pans and evaporators.
d. Thermodynamics, we leant on the effect of introduction of vacuum to the boiling
point of a liquid in the pans and evaporators where the boiling temperatures were
greatly reduced.

3.4 REFERENCE.
www.west kenya sugar company .com

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