Earth and Life Science The rock will not deform because there

is no place for it to move.

Stress
Stress is the force applied to a rock.
When plates are pushed or pulled, the
rock is subjected to stress. Stress can
cause a rock to change shape or to
break.
4 types of stress
• Compression
• Tension
• Confining Shear

• Shear stress happens when forces slide past

each other in opposite directions.
Compression
This is the most common stress found at
Stress squeezes rocks together. It transform plate boundaries.
causes rocks to fold or fracture.
When two cars collide, compression
causes them to crumple. Compression
is the most common stress at
convergent plate boundaries.

Folds and Faults

3 types of folds
• Monocline
• Anticline
Tension • Syncline
Stress pulls rocks apart. Tension causes Monocline
rocks to lengthen or break apart.
is a simple “one step” bend in the rock
Tension is the major type of stress found layers. In a monocline, the oldest rocks
at divergent plate boundaries. are still at the bottom and the youngest
are at the top.
There is a slight bend in parallel layers
of rock.

Confining
happens as weight of all the overlying
rock pushes down on a deeply buried
rock. The rock is being pushed in from
all sides, which compresses it.
 Reverse Fault
Strike-Slip Fault
Graben Fault
Normal fault
occurs when tensional forces act in
opposite directions causing the foot wall
to be pushed upward.
Tensional stress, meaning rocks pulling
apart from each other, creates a normal
fault. With normal faults, the hanging
Anticline
wall and footwall are pulled apart from
is a fold that is similar to an arch-like each other, and the hanging wall drops
structure going upward. The rocks dip down relative to the footwall.
away from the center of the fold.
The oldest rocks are found at the center
of an anticline. The youngest rocks are
draped over them at the top of the
structure.

Reverse Fault
occurs when compression forces cause
one block to be pushed up and over the
other block.
Reverse faults are exactly the opposite
of normal faults. If the hanging wall rises
Syncline relative to the footwall, you have a
reverse fault. Reverse faults occur in
is a fold that bends downward as a
areas undergoing compression
result of compressional forces. In a
(squishing).
syncline, the youngest rocks are at the
center.
The oldest rocks are at the outside
edges.

Strike-Slip Fault
Strike-slip faults are vertical (or nearly
vertical) fractures where the blocks have
mostly moved horizontally.
4 types of faults
Normal Fault
If the block opposite an observer looking Land is destroyed in many places and
across the fault moves to the right, the created in other places.
slip style is termed right lateral; if the
When the ground moves, the rock layers
block moves to the left, the motion is
found in the surface of the Earth are
termed left lateral.
broken down, twisted and shaken.
When the ground or land is shaped
based on the endogenic forces that
happened.
Types of ENDOGENIC PROCESS
tectonic movements of the crust,
magmatism, metamorphism,
diastrophism, volcanism, and
earthquake and seismic activity.
Graben Fault MAGMA
occurs when tensional stresses result in Magma is primarily a very hot liquid,
the subsidence of a block just like the which is called a 'melt.' It is formed from
so-called Rift valleys. the melting of rocks in the earth’s
lithosphere, which is the outermost shell
of the earth made of the earth’s crust
A graben is a valley with a distinct and upper part of the mantle, and the
escarpment on each side caused by the asthenosphere, which is the layer below
displacement of a block of land the lithosphere.
downward. Graben often occur side-by-
side with horsts. Single or multiple PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MAGMA
grabens can produce a rift valley. ACTIVITY
1. Partial Melting
2. Magmatic Underplating
3. Magmatic Intrusion
PARTIAL MELTING
Partial melting of magma is a process
where only some minerals within a rock
melt due to heat, while others remain
solid. The resulting magma has a
different chemical composition than the
original rock. Partial melting is a crucial
ENDOGENIC PROCESS process in magma generation and
influences the composition of igneous
processes state the function of Earth’s
rocks.
internal geodynamic activity or the
process originating deep within the MAGMATIC UNDERPLATING
Earth
the accumulation of partial melts at the
includes volcanic, tectonic, and isostatic base of the crust where an ocean plate
processes, which shaped the surfaces is subducting under continental crust
of all terrestrial planets, the Moon, and
basically all other Solar System bodies MAGMATIC INTRUSION
with solid surfaces that have been are one of the two ways igneous rock
observed in some detail can form
MAGMA FORMATION existing rock. The heat of the magma
bakes the surrounding rocks causing
Magmas can vary widely in composition,
them to change. This is a local event.
but in general they are made up of only
The changes due to contact
eight elements;
metamorphism are relatively small and
in order of importance: are said to be low-grade metamorphism.

Oxygen (O2) Regional metamorphism by contrast

takes place over large areas and is high-
Silicon (Si) grade metamorphism. Regional
Aluminium (Al) metamorphism is associated with
mountain building like these rocks on
Iron (Fe) the cliff.
Calcium (Ca) Dynamic metamorphism is
Sodium metamorphism that is produced in zones
(Na) such as faults or thrusts that are under
high amounts of pressure. The way that
this form of metamorphism works is that
Magnesium (Mg) rocks are scraped against each other
PLUTONISM causing them to be ground into a
powder. Then this powder is reformed
is the geologic theory that the igneous due to the pressure in the zone and the
rocks forming the Earth originated from heat caused by friction of the two rock
intrusive magmatic activity. surfaces. Due to the given conditions,
PLUTONS we can determine that this
metamorphism is mainly dependent on
is a deep-seated intrusion of igneous pressure and requires relatively low
rock, a body that made its way into pre- temperatures.
existing rocks in a melted form (magma)
several kilometers underground in the AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM
Earth's crust and then solidified. Heat
Metamorphic rocks are one of the For metamorphism to occur energy is
three types of rock classifications. needed to fuel the chemical
They are rocks that have changed form reactions. Heat is the primary source
due to heat and pressure. of this energy.

They came from the Greek Pressure

words meta and The pressure within the earth is the
morph. result of gravity pulling the crust of
the earth downward. This pressure
Meta means change and morph means squeeze the spaces out of the
form. So we get metamorphic meaning minerals within the rock. This makes
to change form. the rocks denser. The heat and
pressure together cause the rock to
3 TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
flow instead of break or fracture. The
1. Contact mineral grains become realigned.
They flatten out and get longer.
2. Dynamic
3. Regional
Plate Tectonics Adds Heat And Pressure
Contact metamorphism occurs when
magma intrudes or forces its way into
There is something else that adds to
both the heat and pressure, and that is
plate tectonics. When the plates of the
earth collide, they squeeze the rocks at
the borders with unbelievable force. This
force increases the pressure in this and Tectonic Plates are the different pieces
surrounding areas. Friction is also of the Earth's crust that move around as
created by the plates grinding together. they float on top of the mantle.
This friction generates enough heat to
melt the rocks at the point of contact.
Plate Tectonics is how those pieces
What is Heat? move and interact with each other.
A type of energy related to kinetic PLATE TECTONICS
energy or movement of atoms. The
more the atoms move the more heat is explains how continents, mountains,
produced. volcanoes and earthquakes were
created as a by-product of continental
Why is the interior of the Earth hot? drift
Two main reason: Continental Drift
1. The heat from when the planet how continents shift position on Earth's
formed. surface
2. The heat from the decay of ➢ In 1960, Harry Hess studied the
radioactive elements. Continental Drift theory.
Three Sources of Heat ➢ Hess proposed the radical idea
1. Residual Heat – Thermal energy left that ocean floors move like a
over from the formation of Earth via conveyor belt, which in turn move
Bordbardment and Accretion. the continents.

2. Frictional Heat –cause by denser ➢ This movement begins at the

core material sinking to the center of mid-ocean ridge, which forms
planet. along in a crack in the oceanic
3. Radioactive Decay – The release of crust.
energy and energetic particles from ➢ At the mid-ocean ridge, molten
radioactive materials heats up materials rise from the mantle
surrounding particles. and erupts.
Two Specific Sources of Heat ➢ The molten material spreads out,
1.Primodial Heat pushing older rocks to both sides
of the ridge.
– is the internal heat energy
accumulated by dissipation in a planet 1. Seafloor spreading is a process
during its first few million years of that occurs at mid-ocean ridges.
evolution. 2. These ridges mark the
- accretional Energy boundaries between two plates
that are diverging.
2. Radiogenic Heat
3. As the plates move apart, the
– is the thermal energy released as a crust is stressed and weakened.
result of spontaneous nuclear
disintegration of natural radioactive 4. This allows magma from under
elements inside the planet; Uranium, the surface to break up through
Thorium, and Potassium.
 the crust, coming out and C. Coal can form anywhere.
creating new sea floor. D. Earthquakes created the coal.
5. The plates move apart, carrying Explanation: Coal forms in warm,
the “new” sea floor with it. swampy places, so the location must
have been different in the past.
EVIDENCES OF SEAFLOOR
SPREADING
1. Evidence from Molten Material
3. Mountain ranges in Newfoundland
Rocks shaped like pillows (rock match those in Scotland in age and rock
pillows) show that molten material type. Why?
has erupted again and again from A. They formed separately by
cracks along the mid-ocean ridge coincidence.
and cooled quickly. B. The continents were once
connected.
Evidence from Magnetic Stripes C. Rocks moved across the ocean by
volcanoes.
Rocks that make up the ocean floor
D. The mountains formed after seas
lie in a pattern of magnetized stripes
dried up.
which hold a record of the reversals
in Earth’s magnetic field. Explanation: Matching mountains show
Evidence from Drilling Samples the land was once part of the same big
landmass.
Core samples from the ocean floor
show that older rocks are found
farther from the ridge; youngest
rocks are in the center of the ridge. 4. Plant fossils found in Antarctica are
the same as those in Australia. Why?
A. Antarctica used to be warmer and
connected to Australia.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
B. Plants grew in Antarctica because of
volcano heat.
1. A geologist in Brazil finds fossilized C. Plants floated there on icebergs.
remains of a freshwater reptile D. People brought the plants long ago.
(Mesosaurus) also found in South
Africa. What does this suggest? Explanation: Antarctica was once
A. The reptile swam across the ocean. warmer and connected to Australia,
B. The continents were once joined. letting the plants grow there.
C. The fossils were carried by ocean
currents.
D. The fossils formed separately by
chance. 5. Earthquakes happen in the Himalayas
because India is still moving into Asia.
Explanation: The same species in two How does this fit with Continental Drift
faraway places means the continents Theory?
were once connected. A. Continents slowly move because
of tectonic plates.
B. Continents do not move.
C. Earthquakes are random events.
2. A mining company in India finds coal D. Continental drift stopped long ago.
in a place that is now dry. What explains
this? Explanation: The Himalayas are still
A. The area was always dry but coal still rising because India keeps moving
formed. northward.
B. The area used to be warmer and
wetter. Stress in Rocks
1. A mining tunnel deep underground A. Anticline
collapses because the rocks above are B. Syncline
being pushed together. What type of C. Monocline
stress is this? D. Dome
A. Tensional stress
B. Compressional stress Explanation: A syncline bends
C. Shear stress downward like a trough.
D. Volcanic stress

Explanation: Rocks are squeezed

together — that’s compressional stress. 6. A rock layer tilts sharply on one side
but is flat on the other. What fold is this?
A. Anticline
B. Syncline
2. A long crack forms in the ground C. Monocline
because the crust is being pulled apart. D. Dome
What type of stress is this?
A. Tensional stress Explanation: A monocline has one
B. Compressional stress steep bend.
C. Shear stress
D. Bending stress

Explanation: Pulling apart causes Types of Faults

tensional stress.
7. In a mountain area, one block of rock
moves up over another due to
squeezing forces. What type of fault is
3. A road in California is split sideways this?
after an earthquake. What type of stress A. Reverse fault
caused this? B. Normal fault
A. Tensional stress C. Strike-slip fault
B. Compressional stress D. Oblique-slip fault
C. Shear stress
D. Bending stress Explanation: Reverse faults happen
when rocks are pushed together.
Explanation: Sideways movement is
caused by shear stress.

8. In the Great Rift Valley, one block of

rock drops down as the crust is pulled
Types of Folds apart. What type of fault is this?
A. Reverse fault
4. Rocks in the Himalayas are bent B. Normal fault
upward like an arch. What fold is this? C. Strike-slip fault
A. Anticline D. Oblique-slip fault
B. Syncline
C. Monocline Explanation: Normal faults happen
D. Dome when rocks are pulled apart.

Explanation: An anticline folds upward

into an arch.
9. In the San Andreas Fault, rocks slide
past each other sideways. What type of
fault is this?
5. A rock layer in a valley dips A. Reverse fault
downward in the middle. What fold is B. Normal fault
this?
C. Strike-slip fault
D. Oblique-slip fault

Explanation: Strike-slip faults happen

when rocks move sideways.

PREPARED BY: MS. IVY P. CAPILITAN

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