GS 5201 Reservoir Sedimentology

Lecturers: Joe Lambiase (40 hours)

John Warren (20 hours)

Course Content: clastic and carbonate depositional

systems, post-depositional processes
and reservoir properties

Assessment: coursework 50%, examination 50%

 Clastic Depositional Systems
Accurate modelling of reservoir sandstones is contingent upon a detailed
knowledge of sand body geometry and connectivity plus vertical and lateral
variations in porosity and permeability
This can only be achieved with a good understanding of the lateral and
vertical facies distribution within the reservoir interval, which depends on an
accurate interpretation of the succession’s depositional setting

salt marsh tidal creek

mud flats

mixed flats rooted

lateral
muds
accretion
sand flats lenticular
bedding
wavy
tidal channel bedding

flaser
bedding
 This is not an easy task because the interpretation of
subsurface sedimentary successions must be done with very
little data
Most standard well data are inadequate for facies interpretation;
facies cannot be resolved with standard well logs or cuttings
Cores are the only sure way of identifying facies, although high
resolution image logs can be useful at times. Trace fossils and
microfossils are highly valuable supporting data and should be
used at every opportunity

Even cores are not entirely accurate. They represent an

extremely small database that must be extrapolated properly to
characterise the vastly larger volume of the reservoir
Many sedimentary structures are too big to fit within a core
barrel and must be interpreted from partial recovery, other
important structures may be missed completely if they are not
abundant
 For this reason facies analysis relies heavily on modern and outcrop
analogues for developing predictive models for subsurface
application

This course will examine facies distribution and stratigraphic

development in the clastic sedimentary environments that are most
relevant to the petroleum reservoirs of SE Asia
The objectives are:
1) to present a framework and methodology for distinguishing the
various sedimentary environments, and
2) to demonstrate how that interpretation can be applied to reservoir
characterisation

The course will cover the following topics: Sedimentary Processes,

Fluvial Systems, Tidal Sedimentation, Wave-Dominated
Environments, Deltas, Deep Sea Sediments and Lacustrine
Sedimentation
There will be 13 sessions, each 3 hours long. Seven sessions will be
lectures on the topics:
7 Sep Sedimentary processes
14 Sep Fluvial systems
21 Sep Tidal sedimentation
28 Sep Wave-dominated environments
5 Oct Deltas
12 Oct Deep sea sediments
19 Oct Lacustrine sediments, trace fossils
Alternating with the lectures will be 6 field trips to view the following
facies:
8 Sep Modern coastal sediments
16 Sep Braided and meandering fluvial sandstones
23 Sep Tidal sediments
30 Sep Shoreface and storm beds
7 Oct Distributary channels and delta lobes
14 Oct Pro-delta and slope deposits
A field trip report is due 1 week after each field trip
 Sedimentary Processes
The most effective way to understand sedimentary facies and
stratigraphic development is by recognizing that sedimentation
and sediment distribution are the products of sedimentary
processes and that stratigraphy is the record of how those
processes change with time

Neither tectonics, relative sea level, accommodation nor

sediment supply directly control sedimentation, they affect
sedimentary processes, which do control the character of
sedimentary deposits

This course will focus on interpreting facies distributions and

sedimentary successions in terms of sedimentary processes in
order to evaluate and predict sandstone geometry and reservoir
properties
 Fluid Flow
Consider Steady, Uniform Flow in an open channel. This means that the
flow velocity does not change with either time or distance

The force that influences the channel bed is the bottom Shear Stress (τo),
which is the weight of the fluid - density (ρ) X depth (y) X gravity (g) -
times the slope ( ),αor o τ= ρgd α

d
α
g
Velocity (U) – is the downstream speed of a fluid. It has two components
of motion that affect sediment transport. One is directed laterally
and is determined by the along-axis slope (α) of the channel and the
other is gravity (g) which acts vertically downward

α
U
g
The mean velocity of a flow can be written as a function of the slope and
depth of a channel with the Chezy equation

U= √ 8gdsinα /f
where f is the Friction Factor, which
Is a measure of the resistance to flow caused by bottom friction

Bottom friction reduces velocity near the bed, producing a

curved velocity profile

τo
f
 Another important flow parameter is Turbulence; it is a
measure of the internal deformation within a flow and it is very complex.
Turbulent eddies form at all scales and directions, causing velocity
fluctuations. Generally, turbulence increases as velocity increases

Reynolds Number (Re) is defined as Re = Ud/ ρ µwhere Viscosity (µ) is a

measure of resistance to turbulent deformation so that Re is the ratio of
flow inertia versus to viscosity

U
 Another useful parameter is the Froude Number (Fr) which is the ratio
between flow inertia and gravity forces and is defined as Fr = U/√ gd

Fr = 1 defines the boundary between Lower Flow Regime where gravity

forces are more important and Upper Flow Regime where inertia is more
important. Most natural flows are in the lower flow regime because
Fr is much less than one. From the equation, if a flow is in the upper flow
regime, it will be shallow with a relatively high velocity

There is a gradual transition from lower to upper flow regime as Froude

number increases, but a change fro upper to lower flow regime is accompanied
by an instantaneous decrease in velocity and increase win water depth.
This is called a Hydraulic Jump

hydraulic U
jump d
lower flow regime
dU upper flow regime
 Sediment Transport
An important property of grain – fluid interactions is Settling Velocity
(Vg), or the rate at which a grain settles to the bottom in still water. Its
value depends on the density difference between the grain and the
fluid (ρs – p) and the drag on the grain

Drag is a function of grain size and shape; generally, large spherical

grains settle faster than small irregularly-shaped grains

Vg settling velocity

silt sand gravel

grain diameter

(after Gibbs et al 1971)

 A grain begins to move when shear stress is strong enough to move it;
threshold shear stress increases with grain size

Grain size, specifically changes in grain size, thus becomes a measure of

relative flow energy

Shear is a lateral force that causes rolling and sliding

shear stress

grain diameter
(modified from Miller et al. 1977)
As current velocity increases, Lift is generated by reduced pressure
above the grain as fluid flows past it; when lift exceeds
gravitational force, the grain moves off the bed

lift

mg
 Saltation is the transport mechanism that results when grains are lifted
off the bed and then settle again at some point downstream

If the upward-directed turbulent velocity component always exceed

settling velocity, then grains are carried in Suspension and never
return to the bed

All three transport mechanisms occur simultaneously because natural

sediments have a range of grain sizes; rolling and saltating grains comprise
the Bed Load and grains in suspension are the Suspended Load

suspension

saltation
rolling

(after Leeder 2003)

 Some grains shift back and forth between transport mechanisms
as turbulence causes velocity fluctuations

The total amount of sediment transported by a flow

Is called the Sediment Discharge (Qs)

As expected, sediment discharge increases as current velocity

increases but it is an exponential relationship where

Qs = U 3 – 5
This is an important relationship because it means that small
changes in current velocity cause very large changes in the amount of
sediment that is transported
Turbulence in the flow also causes perturbations on the bed called
Bedforms

Each bedform is stable under specific combinations of grain size,

current velocity and water depth and there is a general hierarchy of
bedforms with increasing current speed

Also, each type of bedform deposits a unique set of Sedimentary

Structures that can be recognized in sedimentary rocks

This creates a powerful tool for interpreting the energy regime, and
most importantly, changes in energy level within a sedimentary
succession
 The lowest energy bedform is Current Ripples. They are
asymmetric in cross-section and typically 1 - 2 cm high with a
wavelength of 5 – 10 cm

Ripples migrate downstream as sand grains are eroded from the

upstream end of the ripple and transported across the gentle
(Stoss) upstream side, over the crest and deposited by avalanching
on the steep (Lee) downstream side.

(after Bennett and Best 1996)

This creates small-scale inclined lamination

called Ripple Cross-Lamination
As current velocity increases, ripples are replaced by larger
scale, asymmetric bedforms with heights generally in the
range of 0.1 – 1.0 m and wavelengths of about 1 – 10 m

These are called usually called Dunes or Megaripples. They

are formed by the same general process as ripples but their
deposits are large scale Cross-Bedding

(after Bennett and Best 1996)

Cross-lamination and cross-bedding are deposited by straight-
crested ripples and dunes forms Parallel Lamination when
viewed parallel to flow direction

In contrast, sinuous-crested bedforms form Trough Cross-

Bedding when viewed the same way
n
r ectio
i
wd n
flo c tio
dir e
w
flo

Cross-lamination Cross-bedding
(after Allen 1970)
At still higher current velocities, dunes wash out and the bed
becomes flat, depositing sediment that is parallel laminated

n
c tio
dir e
w
flo

This only happens when Froude Number (a flow parameter

that depends heavily on the ratio of current velocity to water
depth ) is relatively high, so that it will not occur in deep
channels (deposit of depth water-field trip six)
The stability range of the various bedforms with varying current
velocity and grain size has been determined experimentally

The fields shift as water depth changes; this plot is for a water
depth of 0.25 – 0.4 m. The fields for plane bed and antidunes
exist because Froude Numbers can be relatively high

antidunes

plane bed
Increasing current velocity

dunes

ripples no movement

(modified from Southard and

increasing grain size Boguchwal 1990)
 Key Points
• The objective of a sedimentological analysis is to predict
subsurface reservoir properties

• Facies analysis is based on grain size and sedimentary

structures because they record the sedimentary processes at
the time of deposition

• Stratigraphic succession records facies distribution through time

and therefore changes in sedimentary processes through time

• No sedimentary structure is unique to any sedimentary

environment

• It is the assemblage of sedimentary structures plus grain size,

and what they mean in terms of sedimentary processes, that
allows accurate facies interpretation