e Mechanical structures resulting from sediment deposition e Under unidirectional flow, ripples begin under critical entrainment velocity
is reached e Other bedforms require increasing velocity and/or grain size properties e Increasing velocities in sand produce predictable sedimentary structures
Primary Sedimentary Structures
McBrideRipples.mov
McBrideLamination.mov
Stratification & Bedforms
CHAPMANS PEAK, SOUTH AFRICA
e Beds are tabular or lenticular layers of sedimentary rock with lithologic, textural, or structural unity e Distinguishable from subjacent and suprajacent layers e Upper/lower surfaces are bedding planes or bounding planes e Marked discontinuities within beds are amalgamation surfaces
Terminology of Bedsets
Plane Bedding Structures
e Simple, horizontal beds > 1 cm
e Results from
suspension sedimentation, e Horizontal accretion, e Encroachment into lee side of obstacle
e Lamination < 1 cm thick
e Absence of
lamination may be due to flocculation
Low Flow Regime Sedimentary Structures
e Ripple Index ratio of ripple length : ripple height e Out-of-phase wave propagation with bedforms e Ripples smallest bedform with RI ~8 (coarse) to 20 (fine sand), forming in sand and silt
Low Flow Regime Sedimentary Structures
e Dune larger bedform with RI ~5 (fine sand) to 50 (gravel) e 2D Dune straight/sinuous and long crested; 10 cm - 100s m e 3D Dune curved faces, irregular and short crested; 10 cm -10s m
DEATH VALLEY
Arabian Peninsula Dune Field
Upper Flow Regime Sedimentary Structures
e In-phase wave propagation with bedforms e Plane-bed flow stage with transport over a relatively flat bed
AntiDunes.mov
e Internal planar lamination (mm - cm laminae) e Highest flow velocities may create antidunes e Antidunes low, undulating with RI ~7 to 100 e Low angle cross beds directed upstream
Multidirectional FlowGenerated Bedforms
e Oscillation (wave) ripples generally symmetrical to slightly asymmetrical due to eddies e Orbital velocity difference < 1 cm/s = symmetrical bedforms e Orbital velocity difference > 5 cm/s = asymmetrical bedforms e Crests are straight to sinuous, bifurcate e Herringbone cross-beds; interference ripples; lenticular beds; flaser beds
CURRENT RIPPLES CURRENT-DOMINATED WAVE-DOMINATED OSCILLATION RIPPLES
Geometries of Beds
e Planar stratification internal layers and laminae that are parallel to bedding planes e Cross strata internal layers or laminae that are at an angle to bedding planes e Beds composed of cross-laminated or cross-stratified units are cross beds e Bedsets comprised of similar beds or cross beds
Cross-Beds
e Result of ripple and/or dune migration; filling of scour pits & channels e Foreset laminae develop as avalanche or suspension settling phenomena; lee side of ripple with steep and straight laminae e Bottomset laminae from suspension load nearly at the angle of repose e Topset laminae rarely preserved (sigmoidal cross beds) e Occur in cross-bed sets small scale bedsets < 5 cm; large scale bedsets > 5 cm
Cross-Bed Geometries
e McKee & Weir (1953) Tabular & Trough Cross bedding e Tabular Cross beds units broad in lateral dimensions with respect to set thickness with planar bounding surfaces.
e Migration
of large-scale ripples and dunes; lower flow regime
e Trough Cross beds units whose bounding surfaces are curved, consist of elongate scour filled with curved laminae
e Migration of small-scale or large-scale ripples e Paleocurrent measured in dip direction of foreset
laminae
Hummocky Cross Stratification
e Undulating sets of cross laminae both concave-up (swales) and convex-up (hummocks) e Common in 15 - 50 cm thick sets; wavy erosional bases and rippled, bioturbated tops e Fine sandstone to coarse siltstone, micaceous with dispersed plant debris
Turbidites
ROLLERS
WAKE MIXING
BODY
SubAqueousDebrisFlow.mov
HEAD
UnconfinedTurbidite.mov
e Density current in ocean and/or lake flowing downslope e Initiated by short-lived catastrophic events (earthquake trigger; storm) e Flow divided into: Head 2x thick as remainder of flow with turbulent flow; Body uniform thickness with uniform flow; Tail flow thins and becomes dilute e Thick-bedded (high density flow) and thin-bedded (dilute density flow) turbidites
Bouma Sequences
e Idealized turbidite sequence recording decay of flow strength e Subdivided into Units A through E e A Massive graded bed (coarsest settled); B plane laminated bed (high flow); C lower flow ripples and wavy lamination; D laminated silt; E laminated mud e Hs believes can be divided into only 2 units e Lower, horizontally laminated unit; Upper, cross-laminated unit
Graded Bedding
GRADED-STRATIFIED INVERSE TO NORMAL
GRADED
DISORGANIZED
e Vertical gradations in grain size within a bed e Basal coarse particles that grade upwards to finer particles at top is Normal (common) e Basal fine particles that grade upwards to coarser particles at top is Reverse (rare) e Basal contacts are sharp; Attributed to turbidites
Massive Bedding
e Bed appears homogenous and lacking internal structure e Turbidite and/or bioturbation generated e Liquefaction of sediment by shock-wave
Soft-Sediment Deformation Structures
e Convolute bedding & lamination due to liquefaction processes e Complex folding or crumpling of semiconsolidated beds e Flame structures wavy or flame-shaped tongues injected into overlying layers e Ball and Pillow hemispherical or kidney-shaped masses into underlying mudstone e Synsedimentary Folds & Faults slump units
Bedding-Plane Markings
e Underside of beds as positive-relief casts and irregular markings Sole Markings e Current-formed structures include: flute casts (elongate ridges, bulbous at one end and flare in direction); current crescents (obstacle scours) e Tool-formed structures include: groove casts (object dragged across surface); bounce, brush, prod, roll, and skip marks (intermittent object contact with bottom) e Load Casts irregularly shaped without current indicators
