EEE 422 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS II

INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

Electromagnetic Spectrum consists of entire range of electromagnetic radiation. Radiation is the
energy that travels and spreads out as it propagates. The types of electromagnetic radiation that
makes the electromagnetic spectrum is depicted in the following screenshot.

Properties of Microwaves
Following are the main properties of Microwaves.
 Microwaves are the waves that radiate electromagnetic energy with shorter wavelength.
 Microwaves are not reflected by Ionosphere.
 Microwaves travel in a straight line and are reflected by the conducting surfaces.
 Microwaves are easily attenuated within shorter distances.
 Microwave currents can flow through a thin layer of a cable.
Advantages of Microwaves
There are many advantages of Microwaves such as the following −
 Supports larger bandwidth and hence more information is transmitted. For this reason,
microwaves are used for point-to-point communications.
 More antenna gain is possible.
 Higher data rates are transmitted as the bandwidth is more.
 Antenna size gets reduced, as the frequencies are higher.
 Low power consumption as the signals are of higher frequencies.
 Effect of fading gets reduced by using line of sight propagation.
 Provides effective reflection area in the radar systems.
 Satellite and terrestrial communications with high capacities are possible.
 Low-cost miniature microwave components can be developed.
 Effective spectrum usage with wide variety of applications in all available frequency ranges
of operation.
Disadvantages of Microwaves
There are a few disadvantages of Microwaves such as the following −

 Cost of equipment or installation cost is high.

 They are hefty and occupy more space.

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  Electromagnetic interference may occur.
 Variations in dielectric properties with temperatures may occur.
 Inherent inefficiency of electric power.

1. MICROWAVE DEVICES
When microwave energy is generated, it is used by either radiating it into space via an antenna or
passing it along a transmission system. In either case, some circuitry will be involved at both the
transmitting and receiving ends. This circuitry, and the transmission system, have features that are
special to signals of microwave frequencies.
The waves in transmission lines discussed in Circuit Theory course earlier are transverse
electromagnetic (TEM) waves, with electric and magnetic fields entirely transverse to the direction
of propagation. In this topic, we continue the discussion of transmission systems with emphasis on
waves of higher – order modes, that is, having components of E or H in the direction of propagation.
Transmission systems which can convey electromagnetic waves only in higher – order modes are
usually called waveguides or simply guides we shall discuss the infinite – parallel – plane
transmission line first, leading to the hollow rectangular and cylindrical waveguides and their field
configurations, cut-off wavelengths and attenuation.

1.1 CIRCUITS, LINES AND GUIDES: A COMPARISON

At low frequencies, a concept of currents, voltages and lumped circuit elements in practical. Thus,
for a simple circuit of fig 1.1 (a), consisting of a generator G and resistor R, circuit theory involving
lumped elements can be used.
At somewhat higher frequencies these ideas can be extended satisfactorily to lines of considerable
length provided that the velocity of propagation and the distributed constants of the line are
considered. Thus, the behaviour of the transmission line of fig 1.1 (b) can be handled by an extension
of circuit theory involving distributed elements.

Another type of transmission system, shown in fig 1.1 (c), consists of a hollow cylindrical or
rectangular pipe or tube of metal. Suppose we ask: can such a pipe convey electromagnetic energy?
If our experience were restricted to simple circuits or transmission lines, as in fig 1.1 (a) and (b), our
answer would be no, since there is only a single conductor and no return circuit for the current.
However, with an awareness of optics, our answer would be yes, since light will pass through a

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straight metal pipe and light consists of electromagnetic waves of extremely high frequency (10 16
Hz).
The complete answer is yes and no, depending on the frequency. Carrying our reasoning further, we
might deduce that if the metal pipe will not transmit low frequencies but will transmit extremely
high frequencies, there must be some intermediate frequency at which there is a transition from
one condition to the other. In the following sections on waveguides we shall find that this transition,
or low – frequency cut off, occurs when the wavelength is of the same order of magnitude as the
diameter of the pipe.
In explaining the transmission of electromagnetic energy through the pipe of fig 1.1 (c) it is found
that the circuit theory which worked for lumped circuits and two – conductor transmission lines is
inadequate. For the hollow metal pipe or tube, it is necessary to direct our attention to the empty
space inside the tube and to the electric and magnetic fields E and H inside the tube. From the field
theory point of view we realise that the energy is actually conveyed through the empty space inside
the tube and that the current or voltages are merely associated effects.
It is necessary to note that waveguides are distinguished by having only one guiding surface. They
are of two main types: (a) metal tubes of any cross section, and (b) dielectric rods. In the first case
the wave travels down the inside of the tube and there is no leakage to the outside. In the second,
the wave is propagated over the outer surface of the rod and there is a considerable field in the
surrounding medium.
For best transmission, tabular waveguides should be made of a low – loss, conducting material. If
runs are short, and cost is important, aluminium or brass will be used, but good quality waveguides
having low attenuation are made from copper which, for some applications where low loss is
paramount, might be plated with silver or gold. The energy is propagated along the inside of the
tube so the inner surface should be smooth and the cross – section must be uniform throughout the
length of the guide.
The main difference between a transmission line and a wave guide is −
 A two conductor structure that can support a TEM wave is a transmission line.
 A one conductor structure that can support a TE wave or a TM wave but not a TEM wave is
called as a waveguide.
The Table 1 brings out the differences between transmission lines and waveguides.
Table 1: The comparison of Transmission lines with the Waveguides
Transmission Lines Waveguides
Supports TEM wave Cannot support TEM wave
All frequencies can pass through Only the frequencies that are greater than
cut-off frequency can pass through
One conductor transmission Two conductor transmission
Reflections are less Wave travels through reflections from the
walls of waveguide
It has characteristic impedance It has wave impedance
Propagation of waves is according to "Circuit theory" Propagation of waves is according to "Field
theory"
It has a return conductor to earth Return conductor is not required as the
body of the waveguide acts as earth
Bandwidth is not limited Bandwidth is limited
Waves do not disperse Waves get dispersed

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Electromagnetic waves propagate in three different modes, which are, the transverse
electromagnetic mode (TEM), transverse electric mode (TE) and the transverse magnetic mode (TM).
Wave propagating in free space is known as the TEM mode (Transverse Electromagnetic) as shown
in figure 1.1, while the TE and TM modes are waves propagating in a parallel plate using the
rectangular waveguide as an example (Note: there are different types of waveguide). TE and TM are
shown in figure 1.2.

Fig 1.1: Wave propagation in free space

Fig 1.2: Wave propagation in a parallel plate (rectangular waveguide)

For minimum loss of energy in the parallel plate, the distance between the plate

mλ
d= 1.1
2 cosθ
Where m is discrete numbers (m = 1,2,3,4 …..)

1.2 TE MODE WAVE IN THE INFINITE-PARALLEL-PLANE TRANSMISSION LINE OR GUIDE

As an introduction to waveguides, let us consider an infinite-parallel-plane transmission line, as in fig
1.2. This is a two – conductor line which is capable of guiding energy in a transverse electromagnetic

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(TEM) mode with E in the z-direction. However, at sufficiently high frequencies it can also transmit
higher-order modes and this type of transmission between the parallel planes serves as a good
starting point for our discussions of higher-order modes.

Consider the higher-order mode where the electric field is everywhere in the y direction, with
transmission in the x direction; i.e., the electric field has only an Ey component. Since Ey is
transverse to the direction of transmission, this mode is designated a transverse electric (TE) mode.
Although E is everywhere transverse, H has longitudinal, as well as transverse, components.
Assuming perfectly conducting sheets, boundary conditions require Ey vanish at the sheets.
However, Ey need not be zero at points between the sheets.
If two plane waves (A and B) are launched between the sheets from the left end, they will travel to
the right via multiple reflections between the sheets, as suggested by the wave paths in fig 1.3a. The
wave fronts (normal to the wave paths) for these waves are as indicated in fig 1.3b. The solid lines
indicate that E is outward (a maximum) and dash lines that E is inward (a minimum). At the sheets
the resultant E is always zero.

The infinite – parallel – plan transmission line we have considered is an idealisation and not a type to
be applied in practice. Actual wave guides for higher order modes usually take the form of a single
hollow conductor. The hollow rectangular guide is a common form.

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1.3 Transverse Electromagnetic mode

The transverse electromagnetic wave has its magnetic field component, electric field and
propagation direction perpendicular to each other as shown below.

Ey

From the figure above, neither the electric field nor the magnetic field of the wave is in the direction
of propagation

1.4 Transverse Electric mode

The TE mode has the electric field vector normal to the direction of propagation i.e. the electric field
at right angles (perpendicular) to the direction of propagation and the magnetic field components in
line with the direction of propagation as shown below.

HZ

For TE wave propagation, EZ = 0, HZ ≠ 0, therefore we solve as a function of Hz.

In Cartesian coordinates, we differentiate Hz in respect to x and y only since HZ ≠ 0,

Therefore

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 2 2
∂ H Z ∂ HZ 2
2
+ 2
+ k H Z =0 1.2
∂x ∂y
Solving the above using separation of variables gives us the equation below

cosmπ cosnπ
H z=C 1.3
a b
Where a and b are the length and height of a rectangular waveguide and C is constant

1.5 Transverse Magnetic mode

The TM mode magnetic field vector is normal to the direction of propagation i.e. the magnetic field
is at right angles (perpendicular) to the direction of propagation, while the electric field components
is in line with the direction of propagation.

EZ

For TM wave propagation, HZ = 0, EZ ≠ 0, therefore we solve as a function of Ez.

In Cartesian coordinates, we differentiate Ez in respect to x and y only since EZ ≠ 0,

Therefore
2 2
∂ EZ ∂ EZ 2
2
+ 2
+k E Z =0 1.4
∂x ∂y
Solving the above using separation of variables gives us the equation below

sinmπ sinnπ
E z=C 1.5
a b
Where m = 0,1,2,3,…… and n = 0,1,2,3,…..

Note: m and n are discrete values and m≠ n

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1.6 The Cut-off frequency and Wavelength of a Rectangular waveguide

Fig: 1.4. A rectangular waveguide

Let us consider the phase velocity (velocity of propagation) which is given as

1
v p=λf = 1.6
√ με
Dividing both numerator and denominator with 2𝞹,

v p=
2 πλf ωλ ω
2π
= =
2π β [ β=
2π
λ ] 1.7

Where β is the phase coefficient; therefore

ω
β= =ω √ με 1.8
vp
2 2
β =ω με 1.9

Expressing the phase coefficient in x, y and z coordinates

2 2 2 2 2
β =ω με=β x + β y + β z =0 1.10

( )
2

( ) ( )
2 2
2 mπ 2 nπ 2 2π
Where βx = , βy = , βz = 1.11
a b λz
2
Making β z the subject of the equation

2 2π 2 2 2
βz = =ω με−β x − β y 1.12
λz

At cut-off, β z =0, therefore

2 2 2
ω με=β x + β y 1.13

( a) (b)
2 2
2 mπ nπ
( 2 π f c ) με = + 1.14

Making fc subject of the formula we'll get our cut-off frequency to be

√( )()
m 2 n 2
1
f c= + 1.15
2 √ εμ a b

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From equation 1.6, we'll make fc the subject to get the cut-off wavelength as

2
λ c=

√( ) ()
m 2 n 2
+
a b
1.16

c
λ 0=
f
1 1 1
2
= 2+ 2
λ 0 λ g λc

( ) ( )
2 2
1 m n
2
= + 1.17
λc 2a 2b
c λg
V ph= −Phase velocity 1.18
λ0
c λ0
V g= −Group velocity 1.19
λg
λ−wavelenght of the higher−order mode∈the guide
λ 0−wavelenght ∈an unbounded medium.

1.7 Types of Waveguides

Apart from the rectangular waveguide, there are other types of waveguides like; elliptic, coaxial,
circular, strip lines etc. These waveguides are hollow metal tubes used to guide electromagnetic
energy from one point to another. These hollow metals are made of copper walls having a thin lining
of Silver of Gold on the inner surface. The transmission of electromagnetic energy along waveguide
travels at a slower velocity than through free space.

Rectangular waveguide: This consists of a hollow rectangular waveguide (rectangular cross section)
that can propagate transverse magnetic and electric modes but not transverse electromagnetic
mode because of the presence of only one conductor. Since the walls of the guide are conductors,
reflections may take place. The applications include: in high-power systems, millimetre wave
applications, satellite systems and precision test applications.

Circular waveguide: This consists of a hollow, round (circular cross section) metal pipe that supports
the TE and TM waveguide modes. Circular waveguides are used in transmission of circularly
polarized waves, used to connect components having circular cross-section (e.g. isolators or
attenuators) to rectangular waveguide.

Ridge waveguide: This is formed with a rectangular ridge projecting inward from one or both of the
wide walls in a rectangular waveguide. It is used to concentrate the electric field across the ridge and
to lower the cut-off frequency of TE10 mode. It used transmitting UHF and low microwave ranges.

Coaxial line waveguide: This is an electrical cable with an inner conductor surrounded by a flexible
insulating layer, surrounded by a conducting shield (outer conductor). Microwaves travel through

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the flexible insulation layer. Coaxial lines waveguide are used to feed lines connecting radio
transmitter and receivers with their antennas, computer network (internet) connections and
distributing cable television (signal).

Strip lines waveguide: It consists of a thin conduction strip of width W that is centred between two
wide conducting ground planes. Dielectric material is placed on both sides of the strip conductor.
They are used inside of the microwave devices themselves (e.g. microwave integrated circuitry).

Fig 1.5. Types of waveguides

1.8 Dominant Mode for a Rectangular Waveguide

The dominant mode for a rectangular waveguide is the mode (either in TE or TM) with the lowest
cut-off frequency. The expressions for fc and λc are identical to the TM case. But this time we have
that the TE dominant mode (i.e. the TE mode with the lowest cut-off frequency) is TE10. This mode
has an even lower cut-off frequency than TM11 and is said to be the Dominant Mode for a
rectangular waveguide.

Fig. 1.6: Field patterns for the TE10 mode in rectangular wave guide

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The field lines are shown in the figure above for the dominant mode of a rectangular waveguide. As
shown in the diagram, the magnetic wave moves in the direction of propagation. The cut-off
frequency for certain values of m and n are shown below.

v 1.5 v
fc (TE10) = fc (TE30) =
2a a
v 2v
fc (TE20) = fc (TE40) =
a a
π
Note TE00 cannot exist because HZ ≠ C and there must be propagation of a wave. For TE 01, HZ = Ccos
b
, and magnetic wave cannot travel in the x-axis therefore making it harmonic in nature and
producing electric field (but for TE, EZ = 0).

Therefore the dominant mode is the TE10 mode.

1.9 Waveguide Components

Waveguide components include obstacles, junctions, matched loads, attenuators, couplers,

circulators and duplexer's resonant cavities.

Obstacles: Obstacles as a waveguide component can easily be defined as a device used to obstruct
or block the flow of electromagnetic waves.

Junctions: Waveguide junctions are used to enable power in a waveguide to be split, combined or
for some extracted. There are a number of different types of waveguide junction that can be used,
each type having different properties; the different types of waveguide junction affect the energy
contained within the waveguide in different ways. The common types of waveguide junction include
the E-type, H-type, Magic T and Hybrid Ring junctions.

The different forms of waveguide junction have different properties and this means that they are
applicable for different applications. Having an understanding of their different properties enables
the correct type to be chosen. The main types of waveguide junction are listed below:

E-Type T Junction: The E-type waveguide junction gains its name because the top of the 'T' extends
from the main waveguide in the same plane as the electric field in the waveguide. It is characterized
by the fact that the outputs of this form of waveguide junction are 180 o out of phase with each
other.

The basic construction of the waveguide junction shows the three port waveguide device. Although
it may be assumed that the input is the single port and the two outputs are those on the top section
of the 'T', actually any port can be used as the input, the other two being outputs.

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H-type T junction: The H-type waveguide junction gains its name because top of the 'T' in the T
junction is parallel to the plane of the magnetic field, H lines in the waveguide. It is characterized by
the fact that the two outputs from the top of the 'T' section in the waveguide are in phase with each
other.

Magic T junction: The magic T waveguide junction is effectively a combination of the E-type and H-
type waveguide junctions. The most common application of this type of junction is as the mixer
section for microwave radar receivers.

The diagram above depicts a simplified version of the Magic T waveguide junction with its four ports.

Hybrid Ring Waveguide Junction: This is another form of waveguide junction that is more
complicated than either the basic E-type or H-type waveguide junction. It is widely used within radar
system as a form of duplexer.

Matched Load: A matched load is one with impedance equaling the characteristic impedance of a
source, line or waveguide, so that there is no reflection of power, and the received power is the
maximum possible. Therefore a matched load can be defined as a device used to terminate a
transmission line or waveguide so that all the energy from the signal source will be absorbed.

Attenuators: An attenuator is an electronic device that reduces the power of a signal without
appreciably distorting its waveform. An attenuator is effectively the opposite of an amplifier, though

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the two work by different methods. While an amplifier provides gain, an attenuator provides loss, or
gain less than 1.

Couplers: A coupler is a device that connects two things, especially mechanical components or
systems. It can also be defined as a device used to connect two shafts together at their ends for the
purpose of transmitting power.

Circulators: A circulator is a passive, non-reciprocal three- or four-port device, in which a microwave

or radio-frequency signal entering any port is transmitted to the next port in rotation (only). A port
in this context is a point where an external waveguide or transmission line (such as a micro strip line
or a coaxial cable), connects to the device. For a three-port circulator, a signal applied to port 1 only
comes out of port 2; a signal applied to port 2 only comes out of port 3; a signal applied to port 3
only comes out of port 1.

Duplexers' Resonant Cavities: A duplexer is made up of four to six ¼ wavelength coaxial cavities as
shown in the figure below. Resonant cavities are used because of its ability to handle power. It also
has low loss and high Q (reactive power). These qualities have made the resonant cavity the only real
choice as a duplexer filter.

Fig 1.7. The most common duplexer

2.0 Microwave Sources

There are two ways in which microwave is generated, i.e. two major sources of microwave signals
which includes Microwave tubes and Microwave diode semiconductors.

The Tube shape is a device used to control a large sign with a smaller signal to produce gain,
oscillation, switching and other operations. The Microwave tubes consist of klystron, Magnetron and
travelling wave tube (t.w.t)

2.1 Microwave Tubes

Klystron tube: Microwave energy is produced here by using a klystron tube. Klystron belongs to a
class of device known as velocity modulation device. Velocity modulation is the process that causes
the velocity modulated electron to move from the emitter to the collector gradually. The klystron
uses a microwave resonant cavity to produce a modulation in the velocity of the electron beam.
Klystron is divided into three groups; the two cavity klystron, multi-cavity klystron and reflex

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klystron. For this course we will only look into the method of operation of the 'two cavity klystron'
using the diagram below.

When an electron beam is injected into the first cavity (Buncher cavity) it produces an appreciable
voltage which set up a magnetic field in the cavity. The collector is set at a higher potential so that
electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated towards the collector. The electrons passing
through the gap will interact with this field and change their velocity. Since the velocity of electrons
is modulated by the field, klystron are called velocity modulated devices. The change in velocity will
either accelerate or decelerate the electron in the drift space. The electron will then bunch at the
second cavity (catcher cavity) and collected by the collector. The bunching will result in the electrons
giving up energy to microwave signal in the catcher cavity.

The klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube which is used as an amplifier for high radio
frequencies, from UHF up into the microwave range. Low power klystrons are used as oscillators in
terrestrial microwave relay communications links, while high-power klystrons are used as output
tubes in UHF television transmitters, satellite communication, radar transmitters, and to generate
the drive power for modern particle accelerators.

Magnetron: Magnetron was invented by Randall and Boot in 1946 and it was the first high power
microwave oscillator to be developed. The invention of magnetron made microwave radar system
possible during the 2nd world war.

The magnetron has an anode as shown below which is constructed of a solid copper ring into which
several resonant cavities are machined. The cavities are a set of quarter-wave resonant lines, the
open ends of which are at the inner surface of the anode block. The resonance ensures that when
oscillation take place, a strong RF electric field is set up at the inner surface.

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Section of Magnetron Construction

Image of a Magnetron

Principle of operation

Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated towards the anode. The electrons experience a
magnetic force perpendicular to its direction of motion and a radial electric field along the way. Their
motion is therefore spiral, then it will form axial bunches, and when they get to the cavity entrances,
they give up their kinetic energy, the energy in turn makes the cavities oscillate.

The cavity magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube that generates microwaves using the
interaction of a stream of electrons with a magnetic field while moving past a series of open metal
cavities (cavity resonators). Electrons pass by the openings to these cavities and cause radio waves
to oscillate within, similar to the way a whistle produces a tone when excited by an air stream blown
past its opening. The frequency of the microwaves produced, the resonant frequency, is determined
by the cavities' physical dimensions.

Applications of Magnetron Tubes

1. Radar Systems: In a radar set, the magnetron's waveguide is connected to an antenna. The
magnetron is operated with very short pulses of applied voltage, resulting in a short pulse of high
power microwave energy being radiated. As in all primary radar systems, the radiation reflected off a
target is analyzed to produce a radar map on a screen.

2. Heating: In microwave ovens, the waveguide leads to a radio frequency-transparent port into the
cooking chamber. As the fixed dimensions of the chamber, and its physical closeness to the
magnetron, would normally create standing wave patterns in the chamber, the pattern is

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randomized by a motorized fan-like stirrer in the waveguide (more often in commercial ovens), or by
a turntable that rotates the food (most common in noncommercial ovens).

3. Lighting: In microwave-excited lighting systems, such as a sulfur lamp, a magnetron provides the
microwave field that is passed through a waveguide to the lighting cavity containing the light-
emitting substance (e.g., sulfur, metal halides, etc.).

Although efficient, these lamps are much more complex than other methods of lighting and
therefore not commonly used. More modern variants use HEMTs or GaNon-SiC power
semiconductors to generate the microwaves, which are substantially less complex and can be
adjusted to maximize light output using a PID system.

Travelling Wave Tube: Invented by Kompfner and Pierce in 1946 is used as an amplifier and it can
operate over bigger bandwidths. It provides the best performance over a wide frequency range (low
to medium power applications) and it is very popular for broadband satellite and terrestrial systems.

A Travelling wave tube

Principle of operation

The travelling wave tube is contained within a glass vacuum tube. This obviously maintains the
vacuum that is required for the operation of the TWT. The electron gun comprising primarily of a
heated cathode and grids. A magnet and focusing structure is included in order to make the
electrons travel as a tight or narrow beam along the length of the travelling wave tube. The RF input
consists of a direction coupler which may either be in the form of a waveguide or an electromagnetic
coil. This is positioned near the electron gun emitter and it induces current into the helix. Helix is an
essential part of the traveling wave tube. It acts as a delay line, in which the RF signal travels at near
the same speed along the tube as the electron beam. The electromagnetic field due to the current in
the helix interacts with the electron beam, causing bunching of the electrons in an effect known as
velocity modulation and the electromagnetic field resulting from the beam current then induces
more current back into the helix. In this way the current builds up and the signal is therefore
amplified. The RF output from the traveling wave tube consists of a second directional coupler.

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Again this may either be an electromagnetic coil of a waveguide. This is positioned near the collector
and it receives the amplified version of the signal from the far end of the helix from the electron gun
or emitter. An attenuator is included on the helix, usually between the input and output sections of
the TWT helix. This is essential to prevent the reflected wave from travelling back to the cathode of
the electron gun. The collector finally collects and absorbs the electron beam. It is in this area that
high levels of power may be dissipated and therefore this section of the travelling wave tube can
become very hot and will require cooling.

Travelling wave tube applications

There are many areas in which TWT amplifiers are used. They are an ideal form of RF amplifier for
satellites and as a result they are extensively used for satellite transponders where low levels signals
are received and need to be retransmitted at much higher levels.

In addition to this TWT amplifiers are used in microwave radar systems where they are able to
produce the high levels of power required. Traveling wave tube, TWT technology is also used for
electronic warfare applications. In these applications the grid on the travelling wave tube may be
used to pulse the transmission.

2.2 Microwave Semiconductor Devices

Many semiconductor diodes are available for microwave application mainly designed to take care of
signal detection and mixing purpose.

Microwaves Diodes
Schottky Barrier Diode: Microwave diodes have many uses such as amplification, detection, power
generation, phase shifting, down conversion, up conversion, limiting modulation, switching, etc.
Schottky Barrier Diode is a simple diode that exhibits non-linear impedance. These diodes are mostly
used for microwave detection and mixing.
Construction of Schottky Barrier Diode
A semi-conductor pellet is mounted on a metal base. A spring loaded wire is connected with a sharp
point to this silicon pellet. This can be easily mounted into coaxial or waveguide lines. The following
figure gives a clear picture of the construction.

Shotkky Barrier Diode

Operation of Schottky Barrier Diode

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With the contact between the semi-conductor and the metal, a depletion region is formed. The
metal region has smaller depletion width, comparatively. When contact is made, electron flow
occurs from the semi-conductor to the metal. This depletion builds up a positive space charge in the
semi-conductor and the electric field opposes further flow, which leads to the creation of a barrier at
the interface.
During forward bias, the barrier height is reduced and the electrons get injected into the metal,
whereas during reverse bias, the barrier height increases and the electron injection almost stops.
Advantages of Schottky Barrier Diode
These are the following advantages.
 Low cost
 Simplicity
 Reliable
 Noise figures 4 to 5dB
Applications of Schottky Barrier Diode
These are the following applications.
 Low noise mixer
 Balanced mixer in continuous wave radar
 Microwave detector

Gunn Effect Devices: J B Gunn discovered periodic fluctuations of current passing through the n-type
GaAs specimen when the applied voltage exceeded a certain critical value. In these diodes, there are
two valleys, L & U valleys in conduction band and the electron transfer occurs between them,
depending upon the applied electric field. This effect of population inversion from lower L-valley to
upper U-valley is called Transfer Electron Effect and hence these are called as Transfer Electron
Devices (TEDs).
Applications of Gunn Diodes
Gunn diodes are extensively used in the following devices −
 Radar transmitters
 Transponders in air traffic control
 Industrial telemetry systems
 Power oscillators
 Logic circuits
 Broadband linear amplifier

Microwave Transistors
The development of microwave integrated circuits, involving substrate – based sources, detectors
and passive components, has necessitated the development of wave guiding techniques suitable for
integrated circuit applications. There is a need to develop special transistors to tolerate the
microwave frequencies. Hence for microwave applications, silicon n-p-n transistors that can provide
adequate powers at microwave frequencies have been developed. They are with typically 5 watts at
a frequency of 3GHz with a gain of 5dB. A cross-sectional view of such a transistor is shown in the
following figure.

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Microwave transistor

Construction of Microwave Transistors

An n type epitaxial layer is grown on n+ substrate that constitutes the collector. On this n region, a
SiO2 layer is grown thermally. A p-base and heavily doped n-emitters are diffused into the base.
Openings are made in Oxide for Ohmic contacts. Connections are made in parallel.
Such transistors have a surface geometry categorized as either interdigitated, overlay, or matrix.
These forms are shown in the following figure.

Surface geometry of n-p-n microwave transistor

Power transistors employ all the three surface geometries.

Small signal transistors employ interdigitated surface geometry. Interdigitated structure is suitable
for small signal applications in the L, S, and C bands. The matrix geometry is sometimes called mesh
or emitter grid. Overlay and Matrix structures are useful as power devices in the UHF and VHF
regions.
Operation of Microwave Transistors
In a microwave transistor, initially the emitter-base and collector-base junctions are reverse biased.
On the application of a microwave signal, the emitter-base junction becomes forward biased. If a p-
n-p transistor is considered, the application of positive peak of signal, forward biases the emitter-
base junction, making the holes to drift to the thin negative base. The holes further accelerate to the

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negative terminal of the bias voltage between the collector and the base terminals. A load
connected at the collector, receives a current pulse.

3.0 FIBRE OPTICS

Let us consider the dielectric cylinder waveguide, which is usually referred to as a fibre or a rod
depending on its diameter.
At or near optical wavelengths the dielectric cylinder guide can be physically small or thread like in
diameter. Such guides, called optical fibres, consist typically of a transparent .core – fibre of glass of
index of refractionη , surrounded by a transparent glass sheath in an opaque protective jacket. A
typical optical fibre (fig 1.12) is as fine as human hair. With the great bandwidths available at
infrared wavelengths, it is possible for a single such fibre to carry 20 million telephone channels or
20 thousand TV channels, or some combination of both, with an attenuation of only ¼ dB/km.

Fig 1.13 shows the cross – section through the axis of an optical – fibre core of index of refraction η1
with cladding of index η2 . A ray entering the core from an external medium of index η0 at an angle
θe will make an angle θt with respect to the axis inside the core. The relation between the angles, as
given by snell’s law, is
η0
sin θt = sin θ e (30)
η1
The ray continuing in the core will be incident on the core – cladding boundary at an angle θi . If
θi >θ ii, where θii is the critical angle, the ray will be totally internally reflected and continue to
propagate inside the core. From (30) and
η2
sin θii = (31)
η1

We have
η1 η1 η1
sinθ t= sin ( 90 −θic ) = cos θic (32)
0
sin θe =
η0 η0 η0
Or

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 sin θ =
√η 1
2
−η22
(33)
e
η0
Where θe = entrance angle on axis of core, rad or deg
η1= index of refraction of core, dimensionless
η2 = index of refraction of cladding, dimensionless
η0 = index of refraction of external medium, dimensionless
For air as the external medium, (η0 =1), (3) reduces to
sin θe = √ η12−η22(34)
For core index η1=1.5 , cladding index η2=1.485 and external medium of air, θe =12.2 thus, any
0

0
ray entering the end of the fibre core on axis with θe <12.2 will be trapped inside (totally internally
reflected) and propagate=ate by multiple reflections down the inside of the core.
If the index of refraction of the core fibre decreases continuously as a function of radius, it is possible
to change path from an angular zigzag as in fig 1.13 to a smooth undulating curve which does not
reach the core – boundary. Under these conditions, the wave propagates as though in an
unbounded optical medium.
A typical optical – fibre communication link is illustrated in fig 1.14 with a laser or light – emitting
diode (LED) as the transmitter and phototransistor or other photosensitive device as the receiver.

In typical optical fibres, lowest attenuation occurs in the 1000 to 2000nm range. This is in the
infrared region. The light wavelength to which the human eye is sensitive are normally from 400nm
(violet light) to 700nm (red light).

3.1 Types of Optical Fibres

Optical fibres are classified as: Single Mode Fibre (one path of light propagation) and Multimode
Fibre (several paths). Single mode fibres are used for carrying signals over long distances for inter –
building connections whereas multimode fibres having distance limitation < 2km, are employed for
intra-building connectivity.

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 Multimode fibres are subclassified according to their refractive index profile, as: (i) Step – index Fibre
in which the refractive index is constant throughout the core and changes abruptly at the boundary
between the core and the cladding. (ii) Graded-Index Fibre in which the refractive index decreases
gradually from the core centre radially outwards moderating the dispersion of signals. This type of
fibre has the highest transmission rate but the attenuation losses are also large.

Layout of an Optical Fibre Communication Link

A fibre Optic Link (fig 1.14) consists of telephone pole or on a Transmitter for conversion of electrical
signal into an optical signal using a Light Emitting Diode (LED), a P-n junction laser or a gas laser, the
Optical Fibre Cable passing through an underground conduit or laid on a telephone pole or on a river
or ocean bed, and a Receiver for reconverting the light into electrical signal with the help of
photodetectors like p-i-n diode or avalanche photodiode.

Advantages of Fibre Optic communications:

i. High Bandwidth Capabilities: A significant advantage of fibre optic telecommunication over Cu-
wire transmission is the extremely large, almost unlimited bandwidth over which huge amounts
of information in various forms like voice, data, video or combinations of these can be
transferred. Present bandwidth limit is around 3.3 x10 10 MHz while the Ultimate bandwidth may
be as high as 104 MHz.
ii. Electromagnetic interference immunity: The light- carrying optical fibres due to their glass/plastic
composition are unperturbed by radio-frequency interference (RFI) or electromagnetic
interference (EMI) such as caused by lightning, electric motors and other appliance leading to
noise-free transmission. The fibres are also not susceptible to any cross-talks. These inherent
properties are exploited in defence. Railways, etc in addition, the bulky shielding required in
metallic cables is dispensed with.
iii. Low signal attenuation: The optical fibres give lower signal attenuation- 0.5 dB/km requiring a
smaller number of repeaters than Cu-wire systems.
iv. Security from tapping: Tapping of information from optical fibres is easily detected, a vital factor
in military, banking and computer networks.
v. Size and weight reduction benefits: The smaller diameter and hence reduced size and weight of
the optical fibres, as compared to copper cables, make them suitable for aviation, ships and tall
buildings.
vi. Human safety factor: Absence of fire hazard due to a short circuit is an importance feature of
fibre optical cables making them useful in coal mines and chemical plants. Moreover, there is no
risk of electric shock.
vii. Superior corrosion resistance: The fibres are highly resistant to the chemical liquids as well as to
the extremes of temperature. They are endowed with more capability to sustain the vagaries of
environment hazards ensuring longevity of fibre optical systems. Their longer life span of 20-30
years as against the 12-15 years of Cu cables has made them very attractive.

Problem: a fibre guide has a core index of refraction η1=1.55 and cladding index η2=1.52. For
λ= Λ μm, find the maximum angle θe at which rays will enter the fibre guide and be trapped.
Answer: 17.70

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