Electromagnetism

Electrostatics
Electric charge is a basic property of matter, and the smallest possible amount is found in
electrons (negative) and protons (positive). Charge cannot be divided into smaller parts.

❑ Thomson discovered electrons and proved that negative charges (electrons) are what
actually flow.
❑ Smallest charge unit: Electron (–) and Proton (+)
❑ Charge is "quantized"—it only comes in whole-number multiples.
❑ Protons are much heavier but stay in place; electrons can move.
 Coulomb
The coulomb (C) is the unit used to measure electric charge, just like meters measure
distance or kilograms measure weight.
•1 coulomb (1 C) is equal to the charge of 6.24 × 10¹⁸ electrons.
• That’s 6,240,000,000,000,000,000 electrons—a huge number!
•1 electron has a charge of 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C (a very tiny fraction of a coulomb).
 Electrification

Electrification happens when an object gains or loses electrons, making it electrically charged. This can occur in three
ways:

Electrification

Electrification
Electrification Electrification
by Friction
by contact by Induction
 Electric Field

➢Electric field is a vector quantity

➢Electric charge is discrete
➢Electric field follow Superposition
➢E.F start from positive and end at negative.
 Electrostatic laws

Unlike versus Like Charges

➢ like electric charges repel, and unlike electric charges attract Because of the vector
nature of the electric field
➢ Particles having no electric charge, such as neutrons, are not influenced by an
electric field.

Coulomb’s Law.
𝑞𝑄
𝐹=𝑘 2
𝑟
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞
𝑄
𝐸=𝑘 2
𝑟
 Electrostatic laws

❖It is 1037 times stronger than the gravitational force

❖1011 times as strong as the weak interaction
❖Equal to the magnetic force
❖1/137 of the strong nuclear force.
 Electrostatic laws
Charge Distribution

Feature Uniform Distribution Non-Uniform Distribution

Electrified Object Regula Irragular

Electric Field Symmetrical, predictable Irregular, stronger in dense zones

Balloon after rubbing, lightning rod

Examples Charged metal sphere, capacitor plates
tip

Causes Natural in conductors at equilibrium Friction, induction, sharp edges

Electric Potential Energy
 Electrodynamics

Electrostatics Electrodynamics
Charge Motion Charges don’t move (static) Charges move

Magnetic Fields Only electric fields Both electric & magnetic fields (electromagnetism)

Examples Balloon sticking to a wall Electric circuits, motors, radio waves

Electric Current
Electric current is the flow of electrons through a conductor (like a wire), similar to cars
moving on a highway.
𝑸 𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒎𝒃
𝑰= SI unit is Ampere (A)=A =
𝒕 𝟏 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
6.24 × 1018 electrons each second
 Electric Current

Direct Current Alternating Current

> Both A.C and D.C are important for MRI.
> Electricity is commonly single phase.
> commercial electric power is generated and transmitted as three-phase current.
> The concept of phase is important for the MR image.
 Ohm’s Law
V=IR------------1840
𝑽
𝑹=
𝑰
𝑳
𝑹=𝝆
𝑨
 Magnetism

1 Paramagnet
• Weakly attracted by an external magnetic field
• They have some unpaired electrons which create small magnetic moments that align
with the applied magnetic field.
• The effect disappears when the field is removed.

B
 Magnetism

2 Ferromagnetic Materials
• Ferromagnetic materials are strongly attracted by a magnetic field.
• Retain their magnetization even after the external field is removed.
• Their atomic magnetic moments align in the same direction, reinforcing each other.
 Magnetism

3 Diamagnetic Materials
• Diamagnetic materials are weakly repelled by a magnetic field.
• They have no unpaired electrons, and when exposed to a magnetic field, they develop a very weak
magnetic moment in the opposite direction
• Disappears when the field is removed.
Magnetism
 Laws of Magnetism
What is a Magnetic Dipole?
A magnetic dipole is a system or object that has two magnetic poles:
North pole (N)
South pole (S)
It’s the basic unit of magnetism, just like a positive–negative pair is for electric charges
There is no magnetic monopole.
Examples of Magnetic Dipoles:
1.Bar magnet – has a north and south pole.
2.Loop of current – a wire loop with current behaves like a tiny
magnet with N and S poles.
3.Electron spin – electrons have a tiny magnetic dipole due to their
spin.
 Laws of Magnetism
Attraction & Repulsion of Magnetic Poles
•Just like electric charges:
• Like poles repel (N–N or S–S)
• Unlike poles attract (N–S)
• The north end of a compass needle points
toward the Earth’s geographic North Pole.
•Magnetic field lines (N-S) are imaginary, but they help us visualize.
 Laws of Magnetism
What is Magnetic Induction?
Magnetic induction is the process of making a material magnetic by placing it near a strong
magnetic field — even though it was not originally magnetic.
When a ferromagnetic material (like soft iron) is placed near a magnet:
•The magnetic field lines (also called lines of induction) are pulled into the iron.
•The iron becomes temporarily magnetic because the magnetic field induces magnetism in it.

Magnetic Permeability
•Magnetic permeability is a material’s ability to allow magnetic field lines to pass
through it.
• Ferromagnetic materials (like iron) → high permeability → strongly affected by
magnetic fields.
• Diamagnetic materials (like copper) → very low permeability → barely affected.
 Laws of Magnetism

Electromagnet
An electromagnet (used in MRI) becomes magnetic only when electric current flows through it.
Types of magnets used in MRI:

Permanent Magnets Resistive electromagnets Superconducting magnets

Made from materials like Magnets created by passing Made from special materials that, when cooled to very low
neodymium or alnico that electric current through a coil temperatures, conduct electricity with zero resistance.
retain their magnetism of wire, often around a soft iron Key Features:
permanently. core. ❑ Very strong magnetic fields.
Always magnetic — no need for Magnetism exists only when ❑ No energy loss after the current is started.
electricity. current flows. ❑ Require cryogenic cooling (often with liquid helium).
❑ Complex and expensive, but highly efficient once
running.
 Magnetic Force
What is Magnetic Force?
Magnetic force is the force exerted by one magnetic field on another
Lorentz force is important to explain the function of coils in MRI system.
F = Force
All three
components always
Perpendicular to
each other

Velocity / current B = Mag.F

 Solenoid
A solenoid is a long coil of wire with many turns, and when current flows through it, it
produces a magnetic field similar to a bar magnet — strong and uniform inside, weak
and scattered outside.
 Solenoid

Magnetic Field Inside a Solenoid

B=μ0nI
Where:
B = magnetic field inside the solenoid (in tesla, T)
μ0​ = permeability of free space = 4π×10−7
n = number of turns per unit length = N/L
I = current in the solenoid (in amperes)

Key Point: Inside a long solenoid, the magnetic field is uniform and parallel to the
axis.
 Solenoid
Magnetic Force in a Solenoid
Solenoids don't exert a net force on themselves, but they exert
force on other magnetic materials placed inside or near them. The
force is calculated using:
F=BILsinθ
This is Lorentz force acting on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic
field, where:
F = magnetic force on the wire (N)
This Force Depends
B = magnetic field (T) on the angle
I = current (A) between the current
L = length of wire in the magnetic field (m) and magnetic field
θ = angle between wire and magnetic field
What is an RF Coil? (Radio Frequency Coil)
•Just like in a transformer, If the current is changing rapidly, like in radio waves, the magnetic
field spreads out as electromagnetic radiation — this is how radios work.
•In MRI machines, the same idea is used:
• Special RF coils send and receive radio waves.
• These waves interact with the magnetized particles inside the body, helping to create
detailed images.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Electric and Magnetic Fields

▪ When an electric charge is sitting still, it creates an electric field around it.
▪ When that charge starts moving, it also creates a magnetic field.

Electromagnetic Radiation
➢ If the moving charge speeds up or slows down (this is called acceleration
or deceleration), it releases energy in the form of electromagnetic
radiation — like light, radio waves, or X-rays.

➢ This energy is carried by a small packet called a photon.

 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Example: X-rays
➢ In an X-ray machine, fast-moving electrons hit a metal target and slow
down suddenly.

➢ This deceleration causes the electrons to release X-ray photons — this is

called bremsstrahlung radiation (a German word meaning “braking
radiation”).
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Example: Radio Waves

✓ When electrons are moved back and forth inside a radio antenna (coil),
they are being accelerated.
✓ As a result, they emit radio waves (RF photons).

What Did Maxwell Do?

➢ James Clerk Maxwell combined all the known laws of electricity and
magnetism into a set of mathematical equations.
➢ These are now called Maxwell’s equations, and they describe how
electric and magnetic fields behave and interact.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
What Do the Equations Show?
❑ Maxwell discovered that when electric and magnetic fields change
together, they create a wave that travels through space.
❑ This wave is what we call electromagnetic radiation (like light, radio
waves, X-rays, etc.).
Direction of the Wave
•The electric field and magnetic field in the wave are at right angles (90°) to
each other.
•The wave itself travels in a direction that is also 90° to both fields.
•Think of it like this:
• Electric field: up/down
• Magnetic field: left/right
• Wave direction: forward (into or out of the page)
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Speed of the Wave

❑ Maxwell’s work also showed that the wave travels at a constant speed in
space:
c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s — the speed of light.

Transverse vs. Longitudinal Waves

❑ Electromagnetic waves (like light and X-rays) are transverse — their
fields vibrate perpendicular to the wave's direction.
❑ Ultrasound waves are longitudinal — the molecules vibrate in the same
direction as the wave moves.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Photon Energy
❖ A photon is a packet of electromagnetic energy.
❖ It starts with zero energy, rises to a peak, then returns to zero.
❖ Its energy depends on how much kinetic energy the original particle
(like an electron) lost when it slowed down or changed direction.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Einstein’s Relativity (1905)

Planck’s Quantum Mechanics (1915)

Dual Nature: Waves and particles (photons).

Key Phenomena:
• Photoelectric effect (particle behavior).
• Interference/diffraction (wave behavior).
Energy-Matter Conversion: Einstein’s E=mc².
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Einstein’s Relativity & Photons

o Relativistic Behavior:
• Stationary observers see photons emitted from decelerated
electrons.
• Observers on an electron detect only electric fields (no radiation).
o Energy Conservation: Kinetic energy → EM energy → matter (E=mc²).
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Three Diagnostic "Windows":

1.Radiofrequency (RF): MRI signal excitation (~MHz).
2.Visible Light: Optical imaging.
3.X-rays: CT/scintigraphy (high-energy photons).
Why It Matters:
•MRI exploits RF photons (Larmor frequency) for nuclear spin manipulation.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
The Visible Light Window
Wave-Dominant Interaction
•Key Wave Properties: Diffraction, refraction, reflection, interference.
•Wavelength Range: 400–700 nm.
Production Mechanism: Electron transitions (excited → ground state) in outer
atomic shells.
Clinical Relevance:
•Surface Imaging Only: Reflects off patient (no internal structure
penetration).
•Detection Methods:
• Human eye (rods/cones).
• Photographic film (light-sensitive molecules).
The X-ray Window
Production Mechanisms:
•Bremsstrahlung ("Braking Radiation"): Deceleration of high-velocity electrons near atomic
nuclei.
•Characteristic X-rays: Outer-shell electron fills inner-shell vacancy (e.g., K-shell).
•Energy Range: 20–150 keV (diagnostic imaging).
Key Difference from Visible Light: Particle-like dominance (high-energy photons).

Shadow gram Analogy:

•Like visible light shadows, but penetrates tissues.
•Internal Structures: Attenuation patterns reveal anatomy.
The MRI Window – RF in MRI
Frequency Range: 10–200 MHz (RF spectrum)
•Overlaps with FM radio/TV (50–200 MHz).
•AM radio: 540–1640 kHz (lower than MRI range).
Key Challenge:
•RF Interference from external sources (radio, WiFi, etc.) can corrupt MRI signals.
Solution:
•Faraday Cage: Shielded room to block external RF noise.
•Similar to x-ray room shielding (but blocks incoming RF instead of containing x-rays).
How MRI Uses RF:
1.Transmit RF Pulse:
1. Excites hydrogen protons (resonance at Larmor frequency).
2.Receive RF Signal:
1. Protons emit RF energy as they relax (detected by coils).
Why This Range?
•Low-energy (non-ionizing) → Safe for patients.
•Matches proton precession frequency in magnetic fields (0.5T–3T).
Property Visible Light RF (MRI) X-rays

Interaction Wave-like Wave + Particle Particle-like

Depth Surface Deep tissue Deep tissue

Energy Low (eV) Very low (µeV–meV) High (keV–MeV)

Detection Eyes/film/cameras RF coils Detector panels

Feature MRI (RF) X-rays Visible Light

Energy Ultra-low (µeV–meV) High (keV) Low (eV)

Attenuation
Interaction Spin excitation Reflection/Refraction
(Compton/Photoelectric)

Depth Deep tissue Deep tissue Surface only

Safety Non-ionizing Ionizing Non-ionizing