energies

Review
Commercial Small-Scale Horizontal and Vertical Wind Turbines:
A Comprehensive Review of Geometry, Materials, Costs
and Performance
Antonio Rosato * , Achille Perrotta and Luigi Maffei

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Via San Lorenzo 4,
81031 Aversa, Italy; [email protected] (A.P.); [email protected] (L.M.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The effective exploitation of renewable energy sources is one of the most effective solutions
to counter the energy, environmental and economic problems associated with the use of fossil fuels.
Small-scale wind turbines (converting wind energy into electric energy with a power output lower
than 50 kW) have received tremendous attention over the past few decades thanks to their reduced
environmental impact, high efficiency, low maintenance cost, high reliability, wide wind operation
range, self-starting capability at low wind speed, limited installation space, reduced dependence on
grid-connected power and long transmission lines, low capital costs, as well as the possibility to be
installed in some urban settings. However, there are significant challenges and drawbacks associated
with this technology from many different perspectives, including the significant discrepancy between
theoretical performance data provided by the manufacturers and real field operation, that need to
be investigated in greater depth in order to enable a more widespread deployment of small-scale
wind turbines. In this review, a complete and updated list of more than 200 commercially available
small-scale horizontal and vertical wind turbine models is provided and analysed, detailing the
corresponding characteristics in terms of the number and material of blades, start-up wind speed,
cut-in wind speed, cut-out wind speed, survival wind speed, maximum power, noise level, rotor
diameter, turbine length, tower height, and specific capital cost. In addition, several scientific papers
focusing on the experimental assessment of field performance of commercially available small-scale
Citation: Rosato, A.; Perrotta, A.;
horizontal and vertical wind turbines have been reviewed and the corresponding measured data
Maffei, L. Commercial Small-Scale have been compared with the rated performance derived from the manufacturers’ datasheets in order
Horizontal and Vertical Wind to underline the discrepancies. This review represents an opportunity for the scientific community to
Turbines: A Comprehensive Review have a clear and up-to-date picture of small-scale horizontal as well as vertical wind turbines on the
of Geometry, Materials, Costs and market today, with a precise summary of their geometric, performance, and economic characteristics,
Performance. Energies 2024, 17, 3125. which can enable a more accurate and informed choice of the wind turbine to be used depending
https://doi.org/10.3390/en17133125 on the application. It also describes the differences between theoretical and in-situ performance,
Academic Editor: Antonio Segalini emphasizing the need for further experimental research and highlighting the direction in which
future studies should be directed for more efficient design and use of building-integrated small-scale
Received: 19 April 2024
wind turbines.
Revised: 26 May 2024
Accepted: 19 June 2024
Keywords: wind energy; commercial small-scale wind turbines; wind turbine performance; wind
Published: 25 June 2024
turbine cost; wind turbine geometry; wind turbine materials

Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 1. Introduction
This article is an open access article 1.1. Background
distributed under the terms and
The use of fossil fuels and the associated release of greenhouse gas emissions has
conditions of the Creative Commons
increased due to the world’s population growth, and residential buildings account for a
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
significant amount of global energy consumption (according to the International Energy
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
Agency [1]). It is well known that encouraging the use of renewable energy sources is one
4.0/).

Energies 2024, 17, 3125. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17133125 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2024, 17, 3125 2 of 43

of the most promising ways to reduce primary energy demand and mitigate climate change;
many countries around the world have adopted technologies based on renewable sources
to generate clean and inexhaustible energy to fulfil their ever-increasing demands [1,2].
Among the renewable energy resources, the use of wind turbines for converting wind
energy into electrical power is rapidly growing in popularity and has received tremendous
attention from the scientific community [2–5]. They can be categorized based on the rated
output power [6,7]:
• Large-scale wind turbines;
• Medium-scale wind turbines;
• Small-scale wind turbines.
According to the International Commission of Electrotechnics [8], small-scale wind
turbines (SWTs) are characterized by an electric output of up to 50 kW; they are referred
to as SWTs because they are situated on the “customer” side of the electric meter or at
or close to the location where the electric energy they generate will be utilized. They can
either be devoted to meeting the on-site load or linked to distribution grids to balance off
huge loads and assist grid operation. Usually, they are employed in small-scale commer-
cial, industrial, agricultural, and residential settings; they can also be adopted in hybrid
energy systems integrated with additional distributed resources, such as photovoltaics,
micro-cogeneration units, batteries, etc. Compared to large-scale and medium-scale im-
plementations of wind energy, little attention has been given to the installations of SWTs
in the built environment [3]. However, SWTs are potential low-cost renewable energy
devices that could be adopted in urban environments and they are gaining more and more
interest mainly thanks to their easy installation, low negative environmental impact, high
efficiency, etc. [2–9]. With respect to large-scale and medium-scale wind energy systems,
SWTs have numerous advantages, such as less installation space, lower maintenance costs,
higher reliability, wider wind operation range, self-starting capability at lower wind speed,
reduced dependence on grid-connected power and long transmission lines, lower capital
costs, etc.; in addition, SWTs can also be installed at low altitudes in a variety of locations,
including rooftops and even in some urban settings, making them a more versatile option
for homeowners who may not have a lot of land or a sunny south-facing roof for solar
panels [3,9]; therefore, SWTs have the potential to be utilized and integrated into residential
urban environments. In comparison with photovoltaic panels, SWTs are noisier, require
more regular maintenance (due to their moving parts), are generally characterized by a
reduced service life, and need a larger space for their installation, but they are generally
more efficient [9].
Despite these advantages, building integrated SWTs also faces significant challenges.
In fact, the potential of SWTs is dependent upon several parameters, including wind
speed intensity and direction [3,7,9,10]. An SWT operating in real life is exposed to wind
that changes direction and speed suddenly; manufacturers’ power curves do not account
for this transient behaviour, during which the power output will decrease significantly
as a result of the SWT attempting to adjust to the new conditions; this could have a
substantial impact on the design phase’s evaluation of the SWT’s performance [3,7,9–11]. As
a consequence, obtaining a constant and dependable source of electricity can be challenging
in urban locations due to variable wind conditions [3,7,9,10]. One of the main obstacles
to the widespread diffusion of SWTs in urban areas is also represented by the challenge
of estimating the feasibility of SWTs depending on the local wind resource, which is
very site-specific and characterized by a lack of accurate means for its assessment [3,7,9].
Furthermore, the wind flow is hindered by the nearby trees and buildings, which causes
turbulence to be created in the flow and a considerable drop in mean wind speed; therefore,
in order to obtain the maximum amount of energy per year, the installation site for any
SWT on a building needs to be accurately evaluated and this requires a thorough analysis
of factors like the mean wind speed’s direction, how the building envelope interacts with
the wind flow, and the degree of wind turbulence [3,7,9].
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 3 of 43

1.2. Novelty, Goals and Structure of the Study

Several reviews related to small-scale wind turbines are available in the scientific
literature [10–16]. Some of them [12,13] are really dated. In order to comprehend the
characteristics of inflowing wind, the turbine performance, and identify knowledge gaps,
Anup et al.’s paper [11] reviewed a variety of studies on the operation of wind turbines
with an electric output between 5 and 20 kW in built environments; they also looked
into the extent to which the International Standard IEC 61400-2:2013 [14] can be applied
with reference to urban settings. In order to improve the efficiency, cost-effectiveness and
reliability of SWTs, Calautit et al. [10] reviewed their current state, drawbacks and research
gaps. This study also examined innovations, developments, and technical aspects allowing
for the maximisation of these technologies’ performances in uneven scenarios of wind
flows and across a broad interval of wind velocities. The paper of Wang et al. [15] looked at
SWTs for Internet of Things (IoT) applications, giving a thorough analysis of their state-
of-art that included power generation methods as well as wind energy rectifiers; it also
discussed applicable generator systems like piezoelectric, electromagnetic, and tribo-electric
nanogenerators. Moreover, it provided a detailed review of the most recent research on
IoT applications, such as urban environments, transportation, self-powered wind sensing,
and intelligent agriculture. Finally, the study identified future research developments and
highlighted the potential of interdisciplinary approaches in supporting SWTs application.
Different designs of vertical-axis SWTS are presented by Wilberforce et al. [16], with each
concept potential evaluated under poor wind quality situations (with wind speeds of 3 m/s,
5 m/s, 7 m/s and 10 m/s), such as those seen in densely populated, suburban, or sparsely
forested regions; in addition, several types of materials for small-scale wind turbines were
explored. However, all the above-mentioned review papers do not provide a complete and
updated list of currently commercially available models of SWTs, nor do they clearly report
the detailed characteristics in terms of geometry, materials, rated performance and costs of
the analysed SWTs. Finally, they do not analyse the performance of SWTs based on existing
in-situ measured data.
In this review, a complete and updated list of currently commercially available small-
scale horizontal and vertical wind turbine models is provided and analysed, detailing the
corresponding characteristics in terms of number and material of blades, start-up wind
speed, cut-in wind speed, cut-out wind speed, survival wind speed, maximum power,
noise level, rotor diameter, turbine length, tower height, and specific capital cost. In addi-
tion, the scientific papers focusing on the experimental assessment of field performance of
commercially available small-scale horizontal and vertical wind turbines are reviewed and
the corresponding measured data are compared with the performance characteristics rated
by the corresponding manufacturers. In particular, Section 2 describes the main classifica-
tions, performance metrics, components and operation of SWTs, Section 3 reports the main
characteristics of commercially available pico, micro and mini SWTs, Section 4 analyses the
main characteristics of commercial SWTs, Section 5 performs a detailed literature review of
the scientific papers available in the literature focusing on the field assessment of SWTs,
and Section 6 discusses the comparison between the data measured in the above-mentioned
scientific papers and the performance data rated by the SWTs manufacturers.
The main aims of this paper can be summarized as follows:
• Support the development and encourage wider use of small wind turbines in ur-
ban settings;
• Create a detailed database including all the main information related to geometry,
materials, costs and performance of commercial SWTs;
• Assist researchers, designers, decision-makers and stakeholders in obtaining an ac-
curate picture of the products available on the market and their characteristics in
a way that facilitates the selection of the most appropriate technology and model
corresponding to the selected area;
• Clarify the state-of-the-art related to up-to-date scientific studies on the experimental
analysis of SWT;
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 4 of 43

• Highlight the differences between field data and rated performance in such a way as
to stimulate further scientific research and push manufacturers to provide increasingly
detailed and representative information about the real performance of SWTs.

2. Small-Scale Wind Turbines: Main Classifications, Performance Metrics, Components

and Operation
According to the International Commission of Electrotechnics [8], SWTs are those char-
acterized by an electric output of up to 50 kW. There are basically two types of SWTs [12,13]:
• Horizontal axis small-scale turbines (HAWTs);
• Vertical axis small-scale wind turbines (VAWTs).
HAWTs have their axis of rotation parallel to the wind stream (i.e., horizontal), whereas
VAWTs are characterized by an axis of rotation perpendicular to the wind stream (i.e., verti-
cal). The operation of HAWTs is dependent on wind direction, while VAWTs are omnidirec-
tional (i.e., they operate independently of the wind direction because they can use wind
from all directions).
Both HAWTs and VAWTs are characterized by the following main performance
characteristics:
• Start-up wind speed vup , i.e., the minimum wind speed required for the blades and
the rotor to start spinning (without providing any usable electric power) [17];
• Cut-in wind speed vin , i.e., the speed at which a wind turbine starts generating
electricity [18];
• Cut-out wind speed vout , i.e., the maximum wind speed at which the wind turbine is
designed to produce usable power [19];
• Rated wind speed vr , i.e., the wind speed at which the rated power of the wind turbine
is reached [20];
• Survival wind speed vs , i.e., the maximum wind speed, as designated by the manu-
facturer, at which the wind turbine is designed to survive (not necessarily producing
power) without damage to any structural equipment or loss of the ability to function
normally [21];
• Rated power output Prated , i.e., the power output at the rated wind speed [20];
• Maximum power output (Pmax ), i.e., the highest power output that the wind turbine
can supply [22];
• Thrust coefficient CT , i.e., the dimensionless number that quantifies the amount of
thrust generated by a wind turbine for a given wind speed; it is a measure of how
effectively the turbine converts the momentum of the incoming wind into a force that
helps rotate the turbine blades;
• Torque coefficient CQ , i.e., the dimensionless number that quantifies the amount of
torque (rotational force) generated by the wind turbine for a given wind speed. It is a
measure of how effectively the turbine converts the energy of the incoming wind into
rotational energy;
• Power coefficient Cp , i.e., the ratio between the maximum power that is generated by
the turbine Pmax and the kinetic power available in the undisturbed stream (maximum
power output that can be theoretically generated by the turbine) Pwind [23]:

(v1 + v2 ) · v21 − v22

Pmax
Cp = = (1)
Pwind 2 · v31
where v1 is the wind speed before contact with the wind turbine, and v2 is the wind
speed after contact with the wind turbine [23]. According to Betz’s law, the maximum
power coefficient Cp theoretically achievable by a wind turbine is 59.3%, meaning that
a turbine can extract no more than 59.3% of the kinetic energy contained in a mass of
air [24]; this maximum theoretical value refers to an ideal wind turbine, i.e., in the case of
no friction, steady and incompressible flow, undisturbed static pressure, infinite blades’
number, etc.; in addition, the thermodynamic irreversibility associated to the real operation
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 5 of 43

of wind turbines’ components should be taken into account; therefore, the Cp values
of existing wind turbines are much lower than the Betz’ law limit of 59.3%. According
to [25,26], HAWTs are able to achieve larger power outputs than VAWTs within the same
flow conditions, but the performances of HAWTs are much more sensitive to the variations
of surface conditions, decreasing the power production for higher turbulence levels due to
ground-level surface roughness. Lee et al. [27] highlighted that VAWTs can produce power
at a relatively lower wind speed with respect to HAWTs (and this is one of the reasons why
VAWTs are generally preferred in residential areas), while, when both operate at similar
wind speeds, HAWTs are expected to produce more power than VAWTs [27]. In addition, it
should be underlined that when there are turbulent flows, which are common in the case of
built environments, VAWTs appear to provide more power in comparison to HAWTs [28];
• Tip speed ratio (TSR), defined as follows [29]:

ω·R
TSR = (2)
v
where ω is the angular velocity of the turbine, R is the rotor radius and v is the wind
velocity [29].
The efficiency of a wind turbine is determined by how the individual parts are config-
ured and designed. The main components of HAWTs and VAWTs can be summarized as
follows [30]:
• Blades: when wind blows across a wind turbine, the air pressure on one side of the
blade drops; this difference in air pressure creates lift and drag; the force of the lift is
greater than the drag, which causes the blades to rotate. This is how a wind turbine
converts wind energy into electricity;
• Hub: it is the component that holds the blades and connects them to the shaft of the
wind turbine;
• Nose cone (or division hood): it is the conically formed forward part of the wind
turbine that is intended to reduce aerodynamic drag and control the behaviour of
approaching airflow;
• Rotor: this piece includes both the blades and the hub;
• Shaft: it connects the rotor to the generator;
• Generator: it is the system converting mechanical energy into electrical energy (either
AC or DC); it is driven by the shaft of the wind turbine; when the rotor of the turbine
rotates, it generates electricity;
• Tower (or pole): it supports the wind turbine’s nacelle; its height is important taking
into account that taller towers allow wind turbines to catch more energy and produce
more power since wind speed rises with height;
• Nacelle (or gondola or body): is the “head” of the wind turbine, and it is mounted on
top of the tower and contains the shaft and the generator;
• Tail vane: this part serves as a guide for the entire structure, directing the wind
turbine’s rotor in the direction of stronger and more favourable winds. If the wind
direction changes, the tale vane turns the turbine into the wind, maximizing the
production of electrical energy;
• Tail boom (or rudder): it connects the tail vane to the nacelle;
• Yaw bearing: it enables the turbine to rotate and react to variations in the wind direction.
There are two fundamental types of HAWTs: downwind and upwind. When the
turbine is in operation, the rotor of an upwind HAWT is situated on the upwind side of the
turbine. Downwind turbines are HAWTs where the rotor is positioned on the downwind
side of the turbine when the wind is blowing. Another typical construction for HAWTs
lacks a shaft [30] and the turbine’s blades are fastened to a faceplate that is fastened directly
to a cylindrical metal “can”; the faceplate and the turbine’s blades combined constitute the
turbine’s rotor. The aforementioned HAWTs are referred to as “direct-drive” HAWTs as the
turbine’s rotor is fixed to the generator directly. However, a few HAWTs contain a gearbox;
it connects a low-speed shaft (connected to the rotor of the turbine) with a high-speed shaft
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 6 of 43

(connected to the generator) allowing to increase the rotational speed and enhance the
electricity production. These HAWTs are known as “gear-driven” turbines.
VAWTs significantly differ with respect to HAWTs. In the case of VAWTs:
• The blades are attached to a central vertical shaft; when the blades rotate, the shaft rotates;
• The shaft is linked to the generator installed at the bottom of the shaft.
VAWTs can be divided into two categories, based on their rotor type: they are the
Savonius type, which is drag-based, and the Darrieus type, which is lift-based [31,32].
Savonius wind turbines are made up of a certain number of half-cylinders arranged
around a vertical shaft in opposition to one another [31]. These rotors operate based on
the variance in drag force experienced by blades depending on whether the wind hits the
concave or convex side. As wind flows through the structure, it encounters opposite-facing
surfaces (one concave and the other convex), resulting in the exertion of two distinct forces
(drag and lift) on these surfaces. Enhancements to the power coefficient can be achieved
by modifying the blade geometry; the introduction of helical blades, for instance, aims to
enhance the power coefficient across various twist angles.
The Darrieus wind turbine, initially patented by G.J.M. Darrieus, featured egg-beater,
H-shaped, and V-shaped rotors. However, subsequent developments have led to the
creation of various geometries aimed at optimizing both aerodynamic and structural perfor-
mance, such as helical-shaped or Gorlov rotors [33,34]. Among these, the egg-beater-shaped
rotor stands out as the most renowned type of vertical axis wind turbine, characterized
by its “C” shaped rotors, giving it the appearance of an egg-beater. Nevertheless, due to
the diminishing rotor radius from the centre to the ends, it loses its self-starting capability,
making it less favourable in scenarios where self-starting is required. Additionally, this
design is not considered appropriate for the generation of electricity in metropolitan areas
because of its low torque coefficient and power coefficient. An egg-beater wind turbine’s
highest coefficient of performance falls between 0.26 and 0.42 [16,35]. The H-shaped rotor
is an advancement of the Darrieus egg-beater shape for improving aerodynamic character-
istics with the goal of optimized power coefficient. The rotor’s blades are straight and have
a uniform radius throughout; the number of blades can vary from two to five depending
on the wind speed; an H-shaped rotor wind turbine’s maximum coefficient of performance
falls between 0.25 and 0.35 [36]. In the case of V-shaped rotor (or “Y” or “sunflower”) with
the two-bladed fixed geometry, each blade is attached to the rotor hub at its root at a fixed
angle to the vertical forming a “V” [37]. Helical-shaped (or Gorlov) rotor consists of straight
and curved blades that are helically twisted around the rotational axis; a helical-bladed
wind turbine’s highest coefficient of performance ranges between 0.25 and 0.479, even if
it shows notable unsteadiness in the power coefficient over the course of a single turbine
revolution [38,39].
Darrieus rotors operate on aerodynamic lift principles, enabling them to rotate at
speeds faster than the wind itself. They are commonly employed for power generation
due to their high rotational speed. However, they lack self-starting capability and exhibit
lower starting torque, making them less reliable in regions with weak prevailing winds [39].
On the other hand, Savonius rotors are drag-based turbines known for their self-starting
nature, which allows them to initiate rotation even at stream velocities of 1.0 m/s [40].
The disadvantages of a Savonius rotor mainly involve low efficiency and low power
generation [41].
While each type of rotor has advantages and disadvantages of its own, none of
them is superior to the other. Hybrid Darrieus–Savonius rotors represent a relatively
new and attractive technology and are seen to be particularly promising for small-scale
distributed power production. A hybrid Darrieus–Savonius rotor has two conventional
rotors (Savonius and Darrieus), where the internal wind turbine is chosen as Savonius
and the external wind turbine is chosen as Darrieus to increase the performance [42].
Hybrid Darrieus–Savonius rotors are characterized by power coefficients between 0.204 and
0.400 [43]. The Darrieus–Savonius rotors are engineered to address the drawbacks of both
Darrieus and Savonius designs. Specifically, the Darrieus rotor’s inability to self-start and
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 7 of 43

its low starting torque are mitigated by attaching a Savonius rotor, which, in contrast, boasts
a high starting torque but lower efficiency [3]. As noted by Chong et al. [44], HAWTs prove
highly effective in harnessing wind energy for electricity generation. However, they need
yaw mechanisms to line themselves correctly with the wind, constant maintenance and
transmission repairs, extra costs for strengthening the tower construction to handle the
weighty nacelle, as well as increased rotor diameter and number of blades, which can pose
risks to surrounding wildlife. Moreover, they are characterized by high noise levels, and
optimal power extraction necessitates the rotor facing the wind direction.
On the other hand, Chong et al. [44] underlined that VAWTs are deemed more suitable
to be used in urban areas mainly thanks to the fact that they can capture wind from
any orientation (they do not require to be positioned into the wind as the HAWTs do
and, therefore, they do not need yaw mechanisms); in addition, because their gearbox
and generator are located at a lower position, VAWTs can be easily scaled down without
sacrificing their efficiency in harnessing wind power; their rotor size can also be adjusted
horizontally without impacting their height. Furthermore, VAWTs can be integrated into
existing HAWTs’ wind farms to integrate the power output. Moreover, the anatomy of
VAWTs makes it considerably easier and more efficient to replace and repair gearboxes than
it is for HAWTs, thanks to the fact that the gearbox can be accessed at ground level, negating
the need for cranes or other big equipment. Finally, as VAWTs can capture wind energy
whatever the wind direction is, they do not require a yawing mechanism, which lowers
manufacturing and maintenance costs. It should also be underlined that VAWTs are more
effective in catching rapidly changing wind, allowing them to be more suitable in urban
installations. Lastly, the decreased rotating speed of VAWTs guarantees safer bird flying,
while simultaneously producing lower noise levels. Despite VAWTs’ usual superiority
with respect to HAWTs, VAWTs also exhibit their share of drawbacks. For instance, they
often suffer from relatively lower efficiency, as seen in the Savonius rotor design, because
the wind hits the rotor blade on both sides (one side counters the direction of the wind,
while the other side follows it), partially balancing the wind force that is available. Another
limitation of VAWTs is their inability to self-start, exemplified in the Darrieus rotor design.
However, site-specific factors and careful planning are essential to minimize the negative
impacts of wind energy applications.
The installation of SWTs often requires planning permissions, and the corresponding
specific rules and regulations can vary greatly depending on the location [45,46]. In
particular, in Italy, the installation and operation of SWTs are regulated by six Legislative
Decrees [47–52], one Regional Law [53], one Law Decree [54], one Directive [55], one
Interministerial Decree [56], and two Civil Codes [57,58].
The power generated by wind turbines varies from a few watts up to hundreds of
megawatts. As mentioned above, SWTs are those characterized by an electric output of up
to 50 kW (according to the International Commission of Electrotechnics [8,14]). In particular,
according to IEC 61400-2:2013 [8,14], SWTs are usually classified into the three different
categories (pico, micro and mini) reported in Table 1 depending on the rated power Prated as
well as the rotor swept area A (the plane of wind intersected by the generator, i.e., the area
of the circle delineated by the tips of the blades of the wind turbine for HAWTs, and the area
determined by multiplying the rotor radius times the rotor height times 3.14 for VAWTs).

Table 1. Small-scale wind turbines (SWTs) classification according to [8,14].

Category Rated Power Prated (kW) Rotor Swept Area A (m2 )

Pico wind turbines
Prated ≤ 1 kW A ≤ 4.9 m2
(PWTs)
Micro wind turbines (MCWTs) 1 kW ≤ Prated ≤ 7 kW A ≤ 40 m2
Mini wind turbines (MNWTs) 7 kW ≤ Prated ≤ 50 kW A ≤ 200 m2

The classification criteria of SWTs suggested in [8,14] and reported in Table 1 are
assumed in this paper.
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 8 of 43

A different classification of SWTs is provided in Italy by the Gestore dei Servizi

Energetici S.p.A. [50,59]. However, according to Araujo et al. [60], alternative classifications
of small-scale wind turbines can be recognized worldwide. Table 2 summarizes such
alternative classification criteria, specifying the proposed categories of wind turbines, the
rated power based on which wind turbines are categorized, the country of application, as
well as the rating institution.

Table 2. SWTs classification methods according to [60].

Category Rated Power Prated (kW) Country Rating Institution

Small-scale wind turbines ≤200 USA American Wind Energy Association
Mini wind turbines 0.3–1 Canada NRCan/CanWEA
Small-scale wind turbines ≤75 Germany Bundesverband WindEnergie
Micro wind turbines ≤1.5 Bundesverband WindEnergie
Small-scale wind turbines 1.5–15 UK
RenewableUK
Small-medium wind turbines 15–100
Renewable Energy and Energy
Small-scale wind turbines ≤100 China
Efficiency Partnership
Small-scale wind turbines ≤500
Micro wind turbines <75 Brazil National Electric Energy Agency
Mini wind turbines 75–500

3. Commercially Available Small-Scale Wind Turbines (SWTs)

In the following sections, all the SWTs available on the worldwide market are described
and analysed in detail. In particular, Section 3.1 refers to the pico wind turbines (PWTs),
Section 3.2 focuses on the micro wind turbines (MCWTs), and Section 3.3 describes the
mini wind turbines (MNWTs). Both horizontal and vertical SWTs are considered. Figure 1
indicates the countries where the SWTs analysed in this study are manufactured; this figure
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 50
highlights that 30.44% of the selected SWTs are manufactured in the USA, while 52.55% of
them are manufactured in Europe.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Distribution
Distribution STWs
STWs selected
selected in
in this
this study
study as
as aa function
function of
of manufacturing
manufacturing country.
country.

3.1. Commercial Pico Wind Turbines (PWTs)

This section focuses on pico wind turbines (PWTs), i.e., wind turbines with electric
output of up to 1.0 kW, commercially available on the market. In particular, Tables 3 and
4 report the manufacturer, model, number of blades, start-up wind speed, cut-in wind
speed, cut-off wind speed, survival wind speed, maximum power output (i.e., the maxi-
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 9 of 43

3.1. Commercial Pico Wind Turbines (PWTs)

This section focuses on pico wind turbines (PWTs), i.e., wind turbines with electric
output of up to 1.0 kW, commercially available on the market. In particular, Tables 3 and 4
report the manufacturer, model, number of blades, start-up wind speed, cut-in wind speed,
cut-off wind speed, survival wind speed, maximum power output (i.e., the maximum
electric output according to the power curve provided by the manufacturer), voltage
(distinguishing between alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC), rotor diameter,
turbine length (i.e., the distance between the nose cone and the tail vane), tower height,
capital cost, specific capital cost (i.e., capital cost divided by maximum electric output),
material of blades, noise level, maximum capacity of electric battery eventually coupled
with the PWT. In particular, Table 3 refers to horizontal axis pico wind turbines (HAPWTs),
while Table 4 focuses on vertical axis pico wind turbines (VAPWTs); in the case of VAPWTs,
the type (Savonius or Darrieus or hybrid) is also specified. It is worth noting that if one of
the characteristics is not specified, the symbol NA (not available) is used.

3.2. Commercial Micro Wind Turbines (MCWTs)

This section focuses on micro wind turbines (MCWTs), with electric output between
1.0 and 7.0 kW, commercially available on the market. Tables 5 and 6 report the manufac-
turer, model, number of blades, start-up wind speed, cut-in wind speed, cut-off wind speed,
survival wind speed, maximum power output (i.e., the maximum electric output accord-
ing to the power curve provided by the manufacturer), voltage (distinguishing between
alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC), rotor diameter, turbine length (i.e., the
distance between the nose cone and the tail vane), tower height, capital cost, specific capital
cost (i.e., capital cost divided by maximum electric output), material of blades, noise level,
maximum capacity of electric battery eventually coupled with the MCWT. In particular,
Table 5 refers to horizontal axis micro wind turbines (HAMCWTs), while Table 6 focuses on
vertical axis micro wind turbines (VAMCWTs); in the case of VAMCWTs, the type (Savonius
or Darrieus or hybrid) is also specified. It is worth noting that if one of the characteristics is
not specified, the symbol NA (not available) is used.

3.3. Commercial Mini Wind Turbines (MNWTs)

This section focuses on mini wind turbines (MNWTs), with electric output between
7.0 kW and 50.0 kW, commercially available on the market. Tables 7 and 8 report the
manufacturer, model, number of blades, start-up wind speed, cut-in wind speed, cut-off
wind speed, survival wind speed, maximum power output (i.e., the maximum electric out-
put according to the power curve provided by the manufacturer), voltage (distinguishing
between alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC), rotor diameter, turbine length
(i.e., the distance between the nose cone and the tail vane), tower height, capital cost, spe-
cific capital cost (i.e., capital cost divided by maximum electric output), material of blades,
noise level, maximum capacity of electric battery eventually coupled with the MNWT. In
particular, Table 7 refers to horizontal axis micro wind turbines (HAMNWTs), while Table 8
focuses on vertical axis micro wind turbines (VAMNWTs); in the case of VAMNWTs, the
type (Savonius or Darrieus or hybrid) is also specified. It is worth noting that if one of the
characteristics is not specified, the symbol NA (not available) is used.
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 10 of 43

Table 3. Main characteristics of commercially available horizontal axis pico wind turbines (HAPWTs).

Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut- Capital Cost Battery

Maximum Power Rotor Diameter/Turbine
Manufacturer/Model/Number of Blades Out/Survival Wind (EUR)/Specific Capital Materials of Blades Noise Level Capacity
(W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Height (m)
Speed (m/s) Cost (EUR/W) (Ah)
Durable
Aurea Technologies/Shine/3 [61,62] NA/3.58/12.52/NA 40/5 (DC) 0.6/0.35/0.814 526.11/13.153 injection-moulded 50 dB 0.012
PC-ABS + Glass
Marlec Engineering/Rutland 504/6 [63–65] 2.2/3.0/20.60/NA ~72/12 (AC) 0.51/0.439/2.0–6.5 433.23/6.02 Reinforced plastic NA 150
Force 4/Giga/6 [66,67] 1.03/1.54/13.0/NA ~30/12 (DC) 0.3/0.07/NA 430.40/14.35 Rigid plastic NA NA
Texenergy/Infinite Air 18/3 [68] 3.58/5.36/17.43/20.56 27/18 (DC) 0.5/NA/NA 455.95/16.89 NA NA NA
WindLily/WindLily/6 [69] NA/3.13/9.84/NA 23/14.6 (DC) 0.6/0.18/NA 329.99/14.35 NA NA NA
Cutting Edge Power/Tailgating/2 [70] NA/3.13/NA/20.12 15/30 (DC) 0.457/NA/NA 215.15/14.34 NA NA NA
Cutting Edge Power/Tailgating/5 [70] NA/2.24/NA/20.12 15/30 (DC) 0.457/NA/NA 215.15/14.34 NA NA NA
Carbon fibre
WindSoleil/Hiko Hyacinth Z300/6 [71] 2.0/3.0/15.0/40.0 350/12–24 (AC/DC) 1.14/NA/NA 495.0/1.41 reinforced with NA NA
plastics
Carbon fibre and
WindSoleil/Hiko Hyacinth X-600CS/5 [72] 2.5/3.0/15.0/45.0 680/24–48 (AC/DC) 1.85/NA/4.0 695.0/1.02 NA 200
nylon
55 dB at 6.00 m/s
KiteX/Wind Catcher/3 [73] 2.0/4.02/15.0/25.0 600/42–45.60 (DC) 4.0/NA/NA 1995.0/3.26 NA and a maximum NA
level of 65 dB
55 dB at 6.00 m/s
KiteX/Wind Catcher Lite/3
2.0/4.02/15.0/22.0 200/19.80–22.80 (DC) 2.05/NA/4.0 1995.0/9.78 NA and a maximum NA
[73–75]
level of 65 dB
Nheowind/Nheowind 3D-04/3 [76,77] 2.0/2.5/35.0/50.0 350/25(AC) 1.5/NA/NA 792.36/2.26 Fibreglass composite 35 dB at 12.00 m/s NA
VEVOR/NA/5 [78] 2.0/NA/NA/50.0 510/12 (DC) 1.19/0.61/NA 157.99/0.31 Nylon fibre NA NA
Reinforced polyamide
Nieuw bij EDL/OmniLed07/6 [79–81] NA/NA/NA/45.0 NA/12 (DC) 0.7/0.3/6.0, 8.0, 12.0 NA 28 dB at 8.00 m/s 14
PAG
Reinforced polyamide
Nieuw bij EDL/OmniLed035/6 [80,81] NA/NA/NA/45.0 NA/12 (DC) 0.35/0.15/4.0, 5.0, 6.0 650.0/NA 28 dB at 8.00 m/s 7.2
PAG
Clean Energy Storage Inc./Energy Ball Fibreglass reinforced
2.0/3.0/22.0/40.0 525/230 (DC) 1.1/1.857/8.9–10.9 1607.0/3.06 NA NA
V100/6 [82–84] polyester
Injection moulded
Primus Windpower/Air X Marine Blades composite—
3.58/NA/15.65/49.20 450/12–48 (DC) 1.17/0.675/7.6–13.7 1647.64/3.66 NA NA
standard/3 [85] Blue + plastic and
carbon fibre
Primus Windpower/SilentWind Air X Hand laminated and
3.58/NA/15.65/49.2 450/12–48 (DC) 1.17/0.675/7.6–13.7 1903.30/4.23 NA NA
Marine—blue carbon fibre Blades/3 [85] carbon fibre
Primus Windpower/Air Breeze Marine
Injection moulded
Wind Generator—standard black 3.13/NA/15.65/40.2 250/12–48 (DC) 1.17/0.675/7.6–13.7 1647.64/6.59 NA NA
composite
blades/3 [86]
Primus Windpower/Air Max Marine Wind Injection moulded
3.13/NA/15.65/40.2 450/12–48 (DC) 1.17/0.675/7.6–13.7 1903.30/4.23 NA NA
Generator carbon blades/3 [86] composite—black
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 11 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut- Capital Cost Battery

Maximum Power Rotor Diameter/Turbine
Manufacturer/Model/Number of Blades Out/Survival Wind (EUR)/Specific Capital Materials of Blades Noise Level Capacity
(W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Height (m)
Speed (m/s) Cost (EUR/W) (Ah)
AUTOMAXX/Windmill DB-600 Nylon fibre and
1.0/2.0/14.0/NA 600/12–24 (DC) 1.35/NA/NA 638.00/1.06 NA 100
Standard/3 [87] fibreglass
AUTOMAXX/Windmill DB-600 Nylon fibre and
1.0/2.0/14.0/NA 600/12–24 (DC) 1.35/NA/NA 683.70/1.14 NA 100
Bluetooth/3 [87] fibreglass
AUTOMAXX/Windmill DB-400 Nylon fibre and
1.0/3.0/12.5/NA 400/12 (DC) 1.22/NA/NA 547.0/1.37 NA 100
Standard/3 [88] fibreglass
AUTOMAXX/Windmill DB-400 Nylon fibre and
1.0/3.0/12.5/NA 400/12 (DC) 1.22/NA/NA 592.67/1.48 NA 100
Bluetooth/3 [88] fibreglass
WINDANDSOLAR/SKU 500W-BSC/3 [89] 5.36/NA/NA/NA 500/12 (AC/DC) 1.52/NA/6.71 327.22/0.65 Plastic NA NA
WINDANDSOLAR/SKU 500W-BSC/5 [89] 2.68/NA/NA/NA 500/12 (AC/DC) 1.52/NA6.71 327.22/0.65 Plastic NA NA
WINDANDSOLAR/SKU 500W-BSC/7 [89] 2.68/NA/NA/NA 500/12 (AC/DC) 1.52/NA/6.71 327.22/0.65 Plastic NA NA
ATO/WT-800M5/3 [90] 2.5/3.0/14.0/40.0 820/24–48 (AC) 2.2/1.4/NA 830.57/1.01 Fibreglass NA NA
ATO/WT-800M5/5 [91] 2.5/3.0/14.0/40.0 820/24–48 (AC) 2.2/1.4/NA 858.07/1.05 Fibreglass NA NA
ATO/WT-600M4/3 [91] 2.5/3.0/14.0/40.0 630/24–48 (AC) 1.85/NA/NA 726.93/1.15 Fibreglass NA NA
ATO/WT-600M4/5 [91] 2.5/3.0/14.0/40.0 630/24–48 (AC) 1.85/NA/NA 754.43/1.20 Fibreglass NA NA
ATO/WT-500M2/3 [92] 2.5/3.0/15.0/40.0 510/24–48 (AC) 1.75/NA/NA 563.35/1.10 Fibreglass NA NA
ATO/WT-500M2/5 [92] 2.5/3.0/15.0/40.0 510/24–48 (AC) 1.75/NA/NA 590.85/1.16 Fibreglass NA NA
ATO/WT-400M2/3 [93] 2.5/3.0/14.0/40.0 420/24–48 (AC) 1.75/0.83/NA 526.0/1.25 Fibreglass NA NA
ATO/WT-400M2/5 [93] 2.5/3.0/14.0/40.0 420/24–48 (AC) 1.75/0.83/NA 553.50/1.27 Fibreglass NA NA
ATO/WT-NE-300S5/3 [94] 2.0/3.0/15.0/55.0 310/12–24 (AC) 1.35/0.66/NA 326.72/1.05 Nylon fibre NA NA
ATO/WT-NE-300S5/5 [94] 2.0/3.0/15.0/55.0 310/12–24 (AC) 1.35/0.66/NA 359.16/1.16 Nylon fibre NA NA
ATO/WT-NE-200S5/3 [95] 2.0/NA/13.0/55.0 220/12–24 (AC) 1.3/0.66/NA 299.22/1.36 Nylon fibre NA NA
ATO/WT-NE-200S5/3 [95] 2.0/NA/13.0/55.0 220/12–24 (AC) 1.3/0.66/NA 326.72/1.49 Nylon fibre NA NA
ATO/WT-NE-100S5/3 [96] 2.0/3.0/14.0/55.0 130/12–24 (AC) 1.2/0.66/NA 269.20/2.07 Nylon fibre NA NA
ATO/WT-NE-100S5/5 [96] 2.0/3.0/14.0/55.0 130/12–24 (AC) 1.2/0.66/NA 296.70/2.28 Nylon fibre NA NA
WINDFORCE™/XUNZEL-6000/3 [97,98] 1.0/2.0/NA/50.0 600/12–24 (DC) 1.31/0.85/8.8 1307.90/2.18 PP + Fibreglass NA 240–480
WINDFORCE™/XUNZEL-6000
1.0/2.0/NA/50.0 600/12–24 (DC) 1.31/0.85/8.8 1626.37/2.71 PP + Fibreglass NA 240–480
MARINE/3 [98,99]
UV-resistant
ISTA BREEZE/i-500/3 [100,101] 2.0/2.3/17.0/NA ~540/12–24 (NA) 1.03/0.5/NA 230.0/0.43 Plastic + 30% glass 40 dB NA
fibres
UV-resistant
ISTA BREEZE/i-700/3 [102,103] 2.0/3.0/16.0/NA ~785/12–48 (NA) 1.86/0.9/NA 390.0/0.50 Plastic + 30% glass 40 dB NA
fibres
Composite Materials
TESUP/Master X/3 [104,105] 2.0/2.7/20.0/50.0 980/220 (NA) 1.6/0.825/NA 439.58/0.45 30 dB NA
and Cast Aluminium
Carbon fibre
Southwest Windpower/Whisper composite,
2.9/3.4/20.3/55.0 ~972/12–48 (DC) 2.1/NA/NA 2230.76/2.30 NA NA
100/3 [106,107] fibreglass and epoxy
bonding
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 12 of 43

Table 4. Main characteristics of commercially available vertical axis pico wind turbines (VAPWTs).

Rotor Capital Cost

Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut-
Type/Manufacturer/Model/Number Maximum Power Diameter/Turbine (EUR)/Specific Materials of Battery
Out/Survival Wind Noise Level
of Blades (W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Capital Cost Blades Capacity (Ah)
Speed (m/s)
Height (m) (EUR/W)
Savonius/Leading Edge/LE-v50/3 [108] NA/5.0/27.0/45.0 86/12–48 (DC) 0.27/0.631/NA 1289.80/15.0 Aluminium alloy NA NA
Savonius/Leading Edge/LE-v150/3 [109] NA/5.0/27.0/NA 200/12–48 (DC) 0.27/1.093/NA 1612.56/8.06 Aluminium alloy NA NA
Hybrid/Etneo/DS300/3 External
Anodized
Darrieus + 4 Internal Savonius NA/2.2/15.5/60.0 500/24 (DC) 1.245/1.06/4.0 2950.0/5.90 50 dB 100, 150, 200
Aluminium
[110–112]
Hybrid/Etneo/DS700/3 External Anodized
NA/2.2/15.5/60.0 ~830/48 (DC) 1.93/1.811/4–7 6500.0/7.83 50 dB NA
Darrieus + 4 Internal Savonius [113,114] Aluminium
Hybrid/IceWind/Njord RW100/3 External Stainless Steel
2.0/2.5/17.0/60.35 ~430/NA 1.1/1.5/NA NA 30 dB NA
Darrieus + 3 Internal Savonius [115] and Aluminium
Hybrid/IceWind/Njord CW100/3 External Stainless Steel
2.0/2.5/10.0/58.12 ~175/12–230 (NA) 1.4/1.5/NA 4800.0/27.43 30 dB NA
Darrieus + 3 Internal Savonius [116] and Aluminium
Darrieus/Makemu/SMARTWIND
2.6/NA/NA/NA 300/12–110 (AC) 0.7/1.2/NA 441.0/1.47 NA 40 dB NA
SW300_PLUS_3P_110/3 [117]
Darrieus/Makemu/SMARTWIND
0.9/NA/NA/NA 300/12–110 (AC) 0.7/1.2/NA 482.0/1.61 NA 40 dB NA
SW300_PLUS_6P_110/6 [117]
Darrieus/Makemu/SMARTWIND
2.4/NA/NA/NA 400/12–110 (AC) 0.7/1.2/NA 491.0/1.23 NA 40 dB NA
SW400_PLUS_3P_110V/3 [117]
Darrieus/Makemu/SMARTWIND
1.2/NA/NA/NA 400/12–110 (AC) 0.7/1.2/NA 532.0/1.33 NA 40 dB NA
SW400_PLUS_6P_110V/6 [117]
Darrieus/Makemu/SMARTWIND
3.2/NA/NA/NA 500/12–110 (AC) 0.7/1.2/NA 541.0/1.08 NA 40 dB NA
SW500_PLUS_3P_110V/3 [117]
Darrieus/Makemu/SMARTWIND
1.06/NA/NA/NA 500/12–110 (AC) 0.7/1.2/NA 582.0/1.16 NA 40 dB NA
SW500_PLUS_6P_110V/6 [117]
Darrieus/Makemu/DOMUS
2.4/NA/NA/NA 500/12–220 (AC) 1.3/0.8/NA 491.0/0.98 NA 40 dB NA
500_PLUS_3P_220V/3 [118]
Darrieus/Makemu/DOMUS
1.2/NA/NA/NA 500/12–100 (AC) 1.3/0.8/NA 622.0/1.24 NA 40 dB NA
500_PLUS_6P_100V/6 [118]
Darrieus/Makemu/DOMUS
2.8/NA/NA/NA 750/12–220 (AC) 1.3/0.8/NA 781.0/1.04 NA 40 dB NA
750_PLUS_3P_220V/3 [118]
Darrieus/Makemu/DOMUS
1.4/NA/NA/NA 750/12–220 (AC) 1.3/0.8/NA 792.0/1.06 NA 40 dB NA
750_PLUS_6P_220V/6 [118]
Darrieus/Makemu/DOMUS
3.2/NA/NA/NA 1000/12–220 (AC) 1.3/0.8/NA 821.0/0.82 NA 40 dB NA
1000_PLUS_3P_220V/3 [118]
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 13 of 43

Table 4. Cont.

Rotor Capital Cost

Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut-
Type/Manufacturer/Model/Number Maximum Power Diameter/Turbine (EUR)/Specific Materials of Battery
Out/Survival Wind Noise Level
of Blades (W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Capital Cost Blades Capacity (Ah)
Speed (m/s)
Height (m) (EUR/W)
Darrieus/Makemu/DOMUS
1.6/NA/NA/NA 1000/12–220 (AC) 1.3/0.8/NA 922.0/0.92 NA 40 dB NA
1000_PLUS_6P_220V/6 [118]
Darrieus/Makemu/EOLO
NA/NA/NA/NA 1000/12–110 (AC) 1.3/1.3/NA 1310.10/1.31 NA 40 dB NA
1K_PLUS_3P_110V/3 [119]
Darrieus/Makemu/EOLO
1.9/NA/NA/NA 1000/12–110 (AC) 1.3/1.3/NA 1510.20/1.51 NA 40 dB NA
1K_PLUS_6P_110V/6 [119]
Darrieus/Maglev/FH-600/3 [120] 1.3/2.5/40.0/45.0 650/12–48 (NA) 0.8/NA/7.0–9.0 655.85/1.01 Aluminium alloy NA NA
Savonius/FLTXNY/FS-V-600/2 [121] 1.3/2.5/40.0/45.0 650/12–96 (DC) 0.52/NA/7.0–12.0 710.0/1.09 Glass and Basalt NA NA
Darrieus/ATO/X3-100/3 [122] 2.0/NA/NA/50.0 130/12–24 (AC) 0.55/0.75/NA 750.50/5.77 Nylon fibre NA NA
Darrieus/ATO/X3-200/3 [123] 2.0/NA/NA/50.0 220/12–24 (AC) 0.55/0.75/NA 835.51/3.80 Nylon fibre NA NA
Darrieus/ATO/X3-300/3 [124] 2.0/NA/NA/50.0 310/12–24 (AC) 0.55/0.75/NA 871.15/2.81 Nylon fibre NA NA
Darrieus/ATO/X3-400/3 [125] 2.0/NA/NA/50.0 420/12–24 (AC) 0.55/0.75/NA 955.29/2.28 Nylon fibre NA NA
Darrieus/ATO/X5-500/3 [126] 2.0/NA/NA/50.0 510/12–48 (AC) 0.65/0.90/NA 1089.47/2.14 Nylon fibre NA NA
Darrieus/ATO/X5-600/3 [127] 2.0/NA/NA/50.0 630/12–48 (AC) 0.65/0.90/NA 1199.84/1.91 Nylon fibre NA NA
Hybrid/IceWind/Njord RW500/3 External
2.0/2.5/50.0/60.35 900/NA 1.3/2.2/NA 4459.68/4.96 Carbon fibre 30 dB NA
Darrieus + 3 Internal Savonius [128–130]
2–5 dB at 2 m
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,15B/2 [131,132] 2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 71/12 (DC) 0.34/0.515/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
distance
2–5 dB at 2 m
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,15B/2 [131,132] 2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 132/24 (DC) 0.34/0.515/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
distance
Savonius/Windside/WS- 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/50.0/60.0 73/12 (DC) 0.34/0.515/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
0,15Bplus/2 [131,133] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS- 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/50.0/60.0 147/12 (DC) 0.34/0.515/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
0,15Bplus/2 [131,133] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,30C/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/30.0/60.0 94/12 (DC) 0.34/1.03/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[134–136] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,30C/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/30.0/60.0 166/24 (DC) 0.34/1.03/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[134–136] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS- 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 97/12 (DC) 0.34/1.03/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
0,30B/2 [134,135,137] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS- 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 190/24 (DC) 0.34/1.03/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
0,30B/2 [134,135,137] distance
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 14 of 43

Table 4. Cont.

Rotor Capital Cost

Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut-
Type/Manufacturer/Model/Number Maximum Power Diameter/Turbine (EUR)/Specific Materials of Battery
Out/Survival Wind Noise Level
of Blades (W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Capital Cost Blades Capacity (Ah)
Speed (m/s)
Height (m) (EUR/W)
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,30Bplus/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/50.0/60.0 100/12 (DC) 0.34/1.03/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[134,135,138] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,30Bplus/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/50.0/60.0 192/24 (DC) 0.34/1.03/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[134,135,138] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,30A8-08/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/60.0/60.0 102/12 (DC) 0.34/1.03/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[134,135,139] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,30A8-08/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/60.0/60.0 201/24 (DC) 0.34/1.03/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[134,135,139] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,30B-29N/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 190/12 (DC) 0.34/1.03/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[134,135,140] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,30B-29N/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 341/24 (DC) 0.34/1.03/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[134,135,140] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,30Bplus-29N/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/50.0/60.0 193/12 (DC) 0.34/1.03/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[134,135,141] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,30Bplus-29N/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/50.0/60.0 377/24 (DC) 0.34/1.03/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[134,135,141] distance
2–5 dB at 2 m
Savonius/Windside/WS-2City/2 [142,143] 2.0/2.5/25.0/60.0 225/12 (DC) 1.05/2.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
distance
2–5 dB at 2 m
Savonius/Windside/WS-2City/2 [142,143] 2.0/2.5/25.0/60.0 270/24 (DC) 1.05/2.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-2CityG/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/30.0/60.0 375/12 (DC) 1.05/2.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[142,143] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-2CityG/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/30.0/60.0 450/24 (DC) 1.05/2.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[142,144] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-2B-dte08/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/3.0/40.0/60.0 540/12 (DC) 1.05/2.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[142,145] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-2B-dte08/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/3.0/40.0/60.0 792/24 (DC) 1.05/2.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[142,145] distance
2–5 dB at 2 m
Savonius/Windside/WS-2AK/2 [142,146] 2.0/3.0/60.0/60.0 540/12 (DC) 1.05/2.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
distance
2–5 dB at 2 m
Savonius/Windside/WS-2AK/2 [142,146] 2.0/3.0/60.0/60.0 864/24 (DC) 1.05/2.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
distance
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 15 of 43

Table 4. Cont.

Rotor Capital Cost

Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut-
Type/Manufacturer/Model/Number Maximum Power Diameter/Turbine (EUR)/Specific Materials of Battery
Out/Survival Wind Noise Level
of Blades (W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Capital Cost Blades Capacity (Ah)
Speed (m/s)
Height (m) (EUR/W)
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,60City/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/20.0/60.0 162/12 (DC) 0.34/2.06/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[147,148] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,60City/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/20.0/60.0 259/24 (DC) 0.34/2.06/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[147,148] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,60A12/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/60.0/60.0 198/12 (DC) 0.34/2.06/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[147,149] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-0,60A12/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/60.0/60.0 384/24 (DC) 0.34/2.06/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[147,149] distance
2–5 dB at 2 m
Savonius/Windside/WS-4A/2 [150,151] 2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 540/12 (DC) 1.05/4.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
distance
2–5 dB at 2 m
Savonius/Windside/WS-4A/2 [150,151] 2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 630/24 (DC) 1.05/4.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
distance
2–5 dB at 2 m
Savonius/Windside/WS-4A/2 [150,151] 2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 900/48 (DC) 1.05/4.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-4B-dte08/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 540/12 (DC) 1.05/4.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[150,152] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-4B-dte08/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 630/24 (DC) 1.05/4.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[150,152] distance
Savonius/Windside/WS-4B-dte08/2 2–5 dB at 2 m
2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 900/48 (DC) 1.05/4.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[150,152] distance
Savonius/Flower Turbines/Small Tulip
Wind Turbine (Off-Grid)/2 Savonius NA/0.7/14.5/54.0 100/230–240 (AC) 0.55/1.40/0.91–1.83 1469.72/44.70 Thermoplastic NA NA
[153,154]
Savonius/Flower Turbines/Medium Tulip
Wind Turbine (On-Grid)/2 Savonius NA/0.7/12.0/54.0 500/230–240 (AC) 1.18/2.62/1.0–2.44 11,281.60/22.56 Thermoplastic NA NA
[153,155]
Savonius/Flower Turbines/Medium Tulip
Wind Turbine (Off-Grid)/2 Savonius NA/0.7/12.0/54.0 500/230–240 (AC) 1.18/2.62/1.0–2.44 9529.44/19.06 Thermoplastic NA NA
[153,156]
Savonius/Whirlwind/Whirlwind-500/3
2.0/4.0/14.0/35.83 550/24–48 (DC) 0.33/0.75/NA NA NA NA NA
[157]
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 16 of 43

Table 5. Main characteristics of commercially available horizontal axis micro wind turbines (HAMCWTs).

Rotor Capital Cost

Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut- Battery
Manufacturer/Model/Number Maximum Power Diameter/Turbine (EUR)/Specific
Out/Survival Wind Materials of Blades Noise Level Capacity
of Blades (W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Capital Cost
Speed (m/s) (Ah)
Height (m) (EUR/W)
Carbon fibre composite,
Southwest Windpower/Whisper
2.5/3.1/20.3/55.0 1000/12–48 (DC) 2.7/NA/NA 5890.64/5.89 fibreglass and epoxy NA NA
200/2 [158]
bonding
Composite Materials and
TESUP/Magnum5/3 [159,160] NA/2.0/19.0/50.0 6050/220 (AC) 2.35/1.55/1.41 1670.0/0.28 35 dB NA
Aluminium
Fibreglass reinforced
Etneo/Pegasus1500/3 [161] 2.0/2.5/18.0/60.0 1800/48–220 (AC) 3.0/2.05/6.0 NA/NA 20 dB at 5.00 m/s NA
nylon
Eolienne/Nheowind 3D-50/3 35 dB at
2.5/3.0/35.0/50.0 1500/135 (AC) 2.8/NA/11.0 4125.53/2.75 Fibreglass composite NA
[162,163] 12.00 m/s
Eolienne/Nheowind 3D-100CP/3 35 dB at
2.5/3.0/25.0/58.33 1800/230 (AC) 3.0/NA/11.0 NA/NA Fibreglass composite NA
[164] 12.00 m/s
Eolienne/Nheowind 3D-100/3 Fibreglass composite and 35 dB at
2.5/3.0/36.0/50.00 3500/230 (AC) 4.0/NA/11.0 NA/NA NA
[164,165] epoxy 12.00 m/s
Vornay Wind/J. Bornay Wind 13+/2 Fibreglass and carbon
2.0/3.0/30.0/60.0 1500/220 (AC) 2.86/2.04/NA 3728.0/2.49 NA 150
[166–168] fibre
Bornay Wind/J. Bornay Wind 25.2+/2 Fibreglass and carbon
2.0/3.0/30.0/60.0 3500/220 (AC) 4.05/2.61/NA 7197.20/2.10 NA 250
[167–169] fibre
Bornay Wind/J. Bornay Wind 25.3+/2 Fibreglass and carbon
2.0/3.0/30.0/60.0 6000/220 (AC) 4.05/3.135/NA 8954.83/1.49 NA 550
[167,168,170] fibre
Clean Energy Storage Inc./Energy
Fibreglass reinforced
Ball V200/5 2.0/3.0/20.5/40.0 2250/230 (AC) 1.98/3.524/12.0–15.0 5113.35/2.27 45 dB NA
polyester
[171–173]
Zaphyr/Airdolphin Pro-Model Carbon fibre laminate
2.5/3.5/50.0/65.0 2300/50 (DC) 1.8/NA/3.5–9.0 6185.81/2.69 NA 420
Z-1000-48/3 [174–176] over solid foam core
Zaphyr/Airdolphin Mark-Zero Carbon fibre laminate
2.5/3.5/50.0/65.0 2300/25 (DC) 1.8/NA/3.5–9.0 5574.74/2.42 NA 420
Model Z-1000-24/3 [174–177] over solid foam core
Tumo Int Corporation
2.0/2.5/18.0/50.0 3500/48–220 (DC) 3.0/NA/8.0 4763.49/1.36 Steel 30 dB at 5.00 m/s NA
LTD/Tumo-Int3000/5 [178,179]
2800/220–380 or
ItalSol/Anemos 455/5 [180] 2.0/3.0/15.0/44.44 2.0/1.6/NA NA/NA Anodized aluminium NA NA
24–48 (AC/DC)
3200/220–380 or
ItalSol/Anemos MWT522/5 [181,182] 2.0/3.0/19.0/44.44 2.0/1.6/NA NA/NA Composite FE 1630PW NA NA
24–48 (AC/DC)
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 17 of 43

Table 5. Cont.

Rotor Capital Cost

Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut- Battery
Manufacturer/Model/Number Maximum Power Diameter/Turbine (EUR)/Specific
Out/Survival Wind Materials of Blades Noise Level Capacity
of Blades (W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Capital Cost
Speed (m/s) (Ah)
Height (m) (EUR/W)
Tumo Int Corporation
2.0/2.5/18.0/50.0 1200/24–180 (DC) 1.96/NA/3.0 1391.44/1.16 Fibreglass and nylon 20 dB at 5.00 m/s NA
LTD/Tumo-Int1000/5 [183]
Tumo Int Corporation
2.5/3.13/13.86/40.0 1100/24–48 (DC) 1.96/NA/3.0 1287.54/1.17 Fibreglass and nylon NA NA
LTD/Tumo-Int1000/3 [184]
Bergey Windpower/Excel-1/3
2.5/3.0/54.0/54.0 ~1225/12–48 (DC) 2.5/2.1/2.5 9886.97/8.07 Fibreglass NA NA
[185,186]
Polypropylene and
Automaxx/SKU DB-1500/3 [187] 1.0/2.5/32.0/NA 1500/24 (DC) 1.7/NA/6.71 1332.54/0.88 40 dB 200
fibreglass
Polypropylene and
Automaxx/SKU DB-1500/3 [187] 1.0/2.5/32.0/NA 1500/48 (DC) 1.7/NA/6.71 1422.74/0.95 40 dB 200
fibreglass
WINDANDSOLAR/Raptor G4/5
2.24/2.68/NA/56.0 1600/12–48 (DC) 1.5/NA/NA 764.04/0.48 Carbon fibre composite NA NA
[188]
WINDANDSOLAR/Raptor G4/7
2.24/2.68/NA/56.0 1600/12–48 (DC) 1.55/NA/NA 797.0/0.50 Carbon fibre composite NA NA
[189]
WINDANDSOLAR/Raptor G4/9
2.24/2.68/NA/56.0 2000/12–48 (DC) 1.57/NA/NA 840.4/0.42 Carbon fibre composite NA NA
[190]
WINDANDSOLAR/Raptor G4/11
2.24/2.68/NA/56.0 2000/12–48 (DC) 1.57/NA/NA 1386.2/0.69 Carbon fibre composite NA NA
[191]
WINDANDSOLAR/Raptor G5/3
2.24/2.68/NA/56.0 1600/12–48 (DC) 1.78/0.84/NA 819.0/0.51 Carbon fibre composite NA NA
[192]
WINDANDSOLAR/Raptor G5/5
2.24/2.68/NA/56.0 1600/12–48 (DC) 1.78/0.84/NA 819.0/0.51 Carbon fibre composite NA NA
[192]
WINDANDSOLAR/Raptor G5/3
2.24/2.68/NA/56.0 2000/12–48 (DC) 1.78/0.84/NA 819.0/0.41 Carbon fibre composite NA NA
[192]
WINDANDSOLAR/Raptor G5/5
2.24/2.68/NA/56.0 2000/12–48 (DC) 1.78/0.84/NA 819.0/0.41 Carbon fibre composite NA NA
[192]
WINDANDSOLAR/Falcon 3/3 [193] NA/NA/NA/42.5 1600/12–48 (DC) 1.57/1.04/NA 851.4/0.53 Aluminium NA NA
WINDANDSOLAR/Falcon 3/3 [193] NA/NA/NA/42.5 2000/12–48 (DC) 2.05/1.30/NA 851.4/0.43 Aluminium NA NA
WINDANDSOLAR/Falcon 5/5 [194] NA/NA/NA/42.5 1600/12–48 (DC) 1.57/1.04/NA 971.4/0.61 Aluminium NA NA
WINDANDSOLAR/Falcon 5/5 [194] NA/NA/NA/42.5 2000/12–48 (DC) 2.05/1.30/NA 971.4/0.49 Aluminium NA NA
ATO/WT-1000M5/3 [195] 2.5/3.0/14.0/40.0 ~1100/24–48 (AC) 2.4/NA/NA 979.55/0.89 Reinforced fibreglass NA NA
ATO/WT-1000M5/5 [195] 2.5/3.0/14.0/40.0 ~1100/24–48 (AC) 2.4/NA/NA 1007.05/0.92 Reinforced fibreglass NA NA
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 18 of 43

Table 5. Cont.

Rotor Capital Cost

Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut- Battery
Manufacturer/Model/Number Maximum Power Diameter/Turbine (EUR)/Specific
Out/Survival Wind Materials of Blades Noise Level Capacity
of Blades (W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Capital Cost
Speed (m/s) (Ah)
Height (m) (EUR/W)
WINDFORCE™/XUNZEL-15000-
1.0/2.0/34.72/60.0 1500/48 (DC) 1.7/NA/8.8 5784.21/3.86 PP + Fibreglass NA 240
48/3 [98,196]
UV-resistant Plastic +
ISTA BREEZE/i-1000/3 [197,198] 2.0/3.0/16.0/NA ~1150/24–48 (NA) 2.2/1.07/NA 465.0/0.40 40 dB NA
30% glass fibres
ISTA BREEZE/i-1500 white/3 UV-resistant Plastic +
2.0/2.5/15.0/NA 1600/24–48 (NA) 2.2/1.07/NA 510.0/0.32 40 dB NA
[199,200] 30% glass fibres
ISTA BREEZE/i-1500 carbon/3 UV-resistant Plastic +
2.0/2.5/15.0/NA 1600/24–48 (NA) 2.2/1.07/NA 570.0/0.36 40 dB NA
[199,200] 30% glass fibres
ISTA BREEZE/i-1500 white/5 UV-resistant Plastic +
2.0/2.5/15.0/NA 1600/24–48 (NA) 2.2/1.07/NA 580.0/0.36 40 dB NA
[199,200] 30% glass fibres
ISTA BREEZE/i-1500 carbon/5 UV-resistant Plastic +
2.0/2.5/15.0/NA 1600/24–48 (NA) 2.2/1.07/NA 615.0/0.38 40 dB NA
[199,200] 30% glass fibres
ISTA BREEZE/i-2000 white/3 UV-resistant Plastic +
2.0/3.0/16.0/NA ~2050/48–350 (NA) 2.25/1.07/NA 550.0/0.27 40 dB NA
[201,202] 30% glass fibres
ISTA BREEZE/i-2000 carbon/3 UV-resistant Plastic +
2.0/3.0/16.0/NA ~2050/48–350 (NA) 2.25/1.07/NA 610.0/0.30 40 dB NA
[201,202] 30% glass fibres
ISTA BREEZE/i-2000 white/5 UV-resistant Plastic +
2.0/3.0/16.0/NA ~2050/48–350 (NA) 2.25/1.07/NA 620.0/0.30 40 dB NA
[201,202] 30% glass fibres
ISTA BREEZE/i-2000 carbon/5 UV-resistant Plastic +
2.0/3.0/16.0/NA ~2050/48–350 (NA) 2.25/1.07/NA 660.0/0.32 40 dB NA
[201,202] 30% glass fibres
Foshan Ouyad Electronic Co.
2.0/3.0/25.0/35.0 1500/48 (DC) 3.0/NA/6 793.58/0.53 Fibreglass NA NA
Ltd./FD3.0-1000/3 [203,204]
Bergey Windpower/Excel-6/3 [205] 2.2/2.5/60.0/60.0 ~6600/240 (AC) 6.16/4.0/24–49 42,878.90/6.50 NA 47.2 dB NA
GALAXY GANG Energy
1.5/3.0/25.0/45.0 ~6100/24–48 (NA) 2.03/NA/6.0 1173.88/0.19 Fibreglass NA NA
House/GG0M6/3 [206]
GALAXY GANG Energy
1.5/4.0/25.0/40.0 ~3800/12–48 (NA) 1.68/NA/6.0 414.57/0.11 Nylon NA NA
House/GG0M3/3 [207]
GALAXY GANG Energy
1.5/4.0/25.0/40.0 ~3800/12–48 (NA) 1.50/NA/6.0 414.57/0.11 Nylon NA NA
House/GG0M3/5 [207]
Carbon fibre composite,
Southwest Windpower/Whisper
2.9/3.1/20.3/55.0 3200/12–48 (DC) 4.26/NA/NA 12,941.1/4.04 fibreglass and epoxy NA NA
500/3 [208]
bonding
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 19 of 43

Table 6. Main characteristics of commercially available vertical axis micro wind turbines (VAMCWTs).

Rotor Capital Cost

Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut- Battery
Maximum Power Diameter/Turbine (EUR)/Specific Materials of
Type/Manufacturer/Model/Number of Blades Out/Survival Wind Noise Level Capacity
(W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Capital Cost Blades
Speed (m/s) (Ah)
Height (m) (EUR/W)
Darrieus/Makemu/EOLO 2K_PLUS_3P_110V/3
NA/NA/NA/NA 2000/12–110 (AC) 1.3/1.3/NA 1520.10/0.76 NA 40 dB NA
[119]
Darrieus/Makemu/EOLO 2K_PLUS_6P_110V/6
2.4/NA/NA/NA 2000/12–110 (AC) 1.3/1.3/NA 1720.20/0.86 NA 40 dB NA
[119]
Darrieus/Makemu/EOLO 3K_PLUS_3P_110V/3
NA/NA/NA/NA 3000/12–110 (AC) 1.3/1.3/NA 1730.10/0.58 NA 40 dB NA
[119]
Darrieus/Makemu/EOLO 3K_PLUS_6P_110V/6
2.9/NA/NA/NA 3000/12–110 (AC) 1.3/1.3/NA 1930.20/0.64 NA 40 dB NA
[119]
Savonius/KOHILO Wind/Quantum3/6 [209] NA/1.3/12.0/56.0 3900/NA 2.32/1.07/3.1 NA/NA NA 38 dB NA
Hybrid/Etneo/DS1500/3 External Anodized
NA/3.0/15.0/60.0 1500/48–240 (AC) 2.8/2.99/4.0 NA/NA 40 dB NA
Darrieus + 4 Internal Savonius [210] Aluminium
Hybrid/Etneo/DS3000/3 External Anodized
2.0/2.2/14.0/60.0 ~3100/45–280 (AC) 4.0/4.16/4.0 17,500.0/5.65 50 dB NA
Darrieus + 4 Internal Savonius [211,212] Aluminium
Savonius/FLTXNY/F-Tulips/2 [213] 1.3/2.0/25.0/52.0 1050/12–24 (DC) 0.3537/1.25/NA NA/NA Glass and basalt NA NA
Darrieus/ENESSERE Srl/Pegasus Wind Turbine/3
2.0/4.0/25.0/39.0 ~3800/380–720 (DC) 2.67/3.76/6.0 69,000.0/18.16 Carbon fibre 38 dB NA
[214,215]
46 dB at
Darrieus/Hipar sp.z.o.o./ECOROTE 2800/4 [216] 1.25/3.0/26.0/NA 3500/230 (AC) 2.2/3.0/9.0 10,600.20/3.03 Aluminium NA
8.0 m/s
46 dB at
Darrieus/Hipar sp.z.o.o./ECOROTE 1500/4 [217] 1.5/3.0/25.5/NA 2000/230 (AC) 2.2/1.5/9.0 9150.20/4.58 Aluminium NA
8.0 m/s
Polyamide + 30% 39 dB at
Darrieus/Solariss s.r.o./N6A/5 [218] 1.2/3.0/NA/45.0 1200/12–48 (NA) 2.0/2.2/NA 1950.0/1.63 100
fibreglass 10.0 m/s
Darrieus/AEOLOS/Aeolos-V 5/3
1.5/2.0/14.0/52.5 ~6300/220 (DC) 4.5/4.8/4.8 13,746.98/2.29 Aluminium 45.0 dB NA
[219–221]
Darrieus/VWT Power/Quiet Revolution Qr5/3
NA/4.0/16.0/52.5 6500/NA (DC) 3.1/5.0/6.0–18.0 45,937.20/7.10 Carbon fibre NA NA
[222,223]
47–54 dB with
Darrieus/VWT Power/Quiet Revolution Qr 6/3 Carbon fibre 8.0 m/s at
1.1/1.5/20.0/NA 7000/NA 3.13/5.1/3.0–18.0 61,549.92/8.79 NA
[224–226] composite 60–25 m
distances
Savonius/FLTXNY/FS-1000/2 [227] 1.5/2.0/14.0/40.0 1100/24–48 (AC) 0.67/1.5/7.0–12.0 562.31/0.51 Glass and Basalt NA NA
Savonius/FLTXNY/FS-2000/2 [227] 1.5/2.0/14.0/40.0 2200/48–96 (AC) 0.8/2.0/7.0–12.0 684.39/0.33 Glass and Basalt NA NA
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 20 of 43

Table 6. Cont.

Rotor Capital Cost

Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut- Battery
Maximum Power Diameter/Turbine (EUR)/Specific Materials of
Type/Manufacturer/Model/Number of Blades Out/Survival Wind Noise Level Capacity
(W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Capital Cost Blades
Speed (m/s) (Ah)
Height (m) (EUR/W)
Hybrid/GALAXY GANG Energy
1.5/2.0/25.0/50.0 ~5250/24–48 (NA) 0.70/0.95/NA 1247.71/0.24 Nylon NA NA
House/GG0X5/3 Darrieus + 9 Savonius [228]
Hybrid/GALAXY GANG Energy
3.0/3.0/40.0/45.0 ~1900/12–48 (NA) 0.52/0.75/NA 849.35/0.45 Nylon NA NA
House/GG0X3/3 Darrieus + 9 Savonius [228]
Hybrid/SMARAAD/SH-3000/5
1.0/2.0/15.0/30.0 3200/12–48 (NA) 0.95/1.3/NA 841.79/0.26 Aluminium alloy NA NA
Darrieus + 9 Savonius [229]
Hybrid/SMARAAD/SH-4000/5
1.0/2.0/15.0/30.0 4500/12–48 (NA) 0.95/1.4/NA 997.68/0.22 Aluminium alloy NA NA
Darrieus + 9 Savonius [229]
Savonius/Flower Turbines/Large Tulip Wind
NA/0.7/12.0/54.0 5390/230–240 (AC) 2.40/5.0/1.0 29,794.13/5.53 Thermoplastic NA NA
Turbine (On-Grid)/2 Savonius [155,230]
Savonius/Flower Turbines/Large Tulip Wind
NA/0.7/12.0/54.0 5390/230–240 (AC) 2.40/5.0/1.0 25,608.61/4.75 Thermoplastic NA NA
Turbine (Off-Grid)/2 Savonius [155,231]

Table 7. Main characteristics of commercially available horizontal axis mini wind turbines (HAMNWTs).

Rotor Capital Cost

Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut- Battery
Manufacturer/Model/Number Maximum Power Diameter/Turbine (EUR)/Specific Materials of
Out/Survival Wind Noise Level Capacity
of Blades (W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Capital Cost Blades
Speed (m/s) (Ah)
Height (m) (EUR/W)
Qingdao Anhua New Energy
Fibreglass
Equipment Co./Horizontal Axis Wind 2.5/3.0/30.0/60.0 11,000/240–500 (AC) 7.6/NA/12.0 NA/NA 65 dB NA
reinforced
Turbine with Maglev Generator/3 [232]
Bergey Windpower/Excel 10/3
2.24/3.4/59.9/59.9 12,600/220–240 (AC) 7.01/NA/18.0–49.0 29,770.08/2.36 NA 42.9 dB NA
[233,234]
Bergey Windpower/Excel 15/3
3.13/4.47/59.9/59.9 21,800/230–240 (AC) 9.6/5.21/18.0–49.0 35,139.38/1.60 Carbon fibre 48.5 dB NA
[234,235]
33, 40, 46 dB at 180,
Ryse Energy/E-10/3 [236,237] NA/2.0/30.0/70.0 20,000/NA 9.8/NA/15.0–36.0 69,707.41/3.49 Fibreglass NA
100, 46 m distances
GEATECNO/Gaia-Wind 133-11kW/2 20, 40, 60 dB at 100,
2.5/3.5/10.0/25.0 12,000/400 (NA) 13.0/NA/NA 35,946.90/3.00 NA NA
[238,239] 60, 30 m distances
InkPV or OEM/FD-30000/3 [240] 3.0/NA/30.0/60.0 33,000/220–380 (DC) 12.0/NA/NA 43,775.18/1.33 Fibreglass 55 dB NA
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 21 of 43

Table 8. Main characteristics of commercially available vertical axis Mini wind turbines (VAMNWTs).

Rotor Capital Cost

Savonius-Darrieus- Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut- Battery
Maximum Power Diameter/Turbine (EUR)/Specific Materials of
Hybrid/Manufacturer/Model/Number Out/Survival Wind Noise Level Capacity
(W)/Voltage (V) Length/Tower Capital Cost Blades
of Blades Speed (m/s) (Ah)
Height (m) (EUR/W)
Darrieus/SISHUINIANHUA/Ruxmy/5
2.0/NA/NA/45.0 NA/12–24 (NA) 0.90/0.6/NA 568.05/NA Nylon fibre NA NA
[241]
Resin Glass and
Savonius/NA/Wangyongqi/2 [242] 1.5/3.0/NA/40.0 9100/12–220 (AC) 0.47/1.08/7.0–12.0 274.77/0.03 NA NA
Basalt
Darrieus/SMJY/SMJY/3 [243] 1.3/2.3/NA/40.0 NA/12–220 (NA) 0.6/0.75/7.0–12.0 2051.0/NA Fibreglass NA NA
Darrieus/Hipar sp.z.o.o./ECOROTE 9800/4
1.2/3.0/25.5/NA 12,000/230 (AC) 4.3/5.6/9.0 28,588.40/2.38 Aluminium 46 dB at 8.0 m/s NA
[244]
Glass Fibre
Hybrid/FlexPro/EOL-V/5 External
3.0/NA/NA/50.0 12,000/380 (NA) 4.5/NA/12.0 21,800.0/1.82 Reinforced NA NA
Darrieus + 4 Internal Savonius [245]
Polymer
Darrieus/Ecolibri Srl/EW01/3 [246] 3.5/5.0/15.0/NA 14,000/380 (NA) 5.7/6.0/10.0 10,000.0/0.71 Composite NA NA
Darrieus/AEOLOS/Aeolos-V10/3 [247,248] 1.5/2.5/40.0/52.5 12,000/300–380 (NA) 4.5/4.8/NA 19,057.97/1.59 Aluminium 45 dB NA
Darrieus/SunSurfs/WT3-10/3 [249] 1.8/NA/8.0/28.0 10,700/360–400 (AC) 9.0/NA/12.0 27,335.54/2.56 NA 63 dB NA
Darrieus/SunSurfs/WT3-20/3 [250] 1.8/NA/9.0/28.0 21,400/360–400 (AC) 11.0/12.0/12.0 59,600.22/2.79 NA 63 dB NA
65 dB at 5.0 m/s
Darrieus/SunSurfs/WT3-30/3 [251] 1.8/2.9/9.0/28.0 32,100/400 (AC) 12.0/12.0/12.0 87,108.01/2.71 NA with 10 m NA
distance
Savonius/WINDSIDE/WS-12/2 2–5 dB with 2 m
2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 25,000/12–48 (DC) 2.0/8.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium NA
[252–254] distance
Savonius/TESUP/Hera Wind Pro/2
1.0/2.0/15.0/50.0 7032/220 (NA) 0.40/1.12/NA 1380.0/0.20 Aluminium 35 dB NA
[104,255]
Savonius/TESUP/Atlas 7/2 [104,256] 1.5/2.0/17.0/50.0 7032/220 (NA) 1.20/1.126/NA 1460.0/0.21 Aluminium 30 dB NA
Savonius/TESUP/Atlas X7/3–12 [104,257] 1.0/2.0/19.0/50.0 7032/220 (NA) 0.46/1.126/NA 1380.0/0.20 Aluminium 30 dB NA
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 50
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 22 of 43

4. Analysis
Analysis of
of Main
Main Characteristics
Characteristics of Commercial Small-Scale Wind Turbines
Figure 2a–f report the minimum, maximum, average and standard deviation data
calculated with reference to the values
values ofof the
the start-up
start-up wind
wind speed,
speed, the
the cut-in
cut-in wind
wind speed,
speed,
the cut-out wind speed, the survival wind speed, the maximum electric output, output, the rotor
the turbine
diameter, the turbinelength
lengthand andthe
thespecific
specific capital
capital cost
cost derived
derived from
from Tables
Tables 3–8 3–8 (in
(in the
the cases
cases when when a parameter
a parameter is notisdefined
not defined in Tables
in Tables 3–8, it3–8,
has it hasexcluded
been been excluded from
from the the
calcu-
calculation).
lation). In particular,
In particular, FigureFigure 2a refers
2a refers to HAPWTs,
to HAPWTs, FigureFigure 2b corresponds
2b corresponds to VAPWTs,
to VAPWTs, Fig-
ure 2c is for HAMCWTs, Figure 2d refers to VAMCWTs, Figure 2e corresponds to
Figure 2c is for HAMCWTs, Figure 2d refers to VAMCWTs, Figure 2e corresponds
HAMNWTs and Figure 2f is for VAMNWTs.
18 10
Maximum value
(a) Maximum value
Minimum value
10.0 (b)
Minimum value 9
16
Average value Average value
Standard deviation Standard deviation
8
14 16.89
7
12 6.0 6.0
6
5.7
9.8
10 5.0 0.6
5
4.0
8 3.7 4.3
4.3 4 3.2
5.5 4.2 4.47
2.6 2.7
6 5.4 5.4 4.0 3.72 1.5
3
2.0 3.6 1.9
2.3 2.9 0.62
4 3.5 1.1 0.7 1.5
2.6 2 0.8
1.6 1.857 0.4
0.7 1.4 0.7
2 0.9 1.0
1 0.99
0.4 0.6 0.4 0.7 0.4
1.0 1.0 0.2 4.68 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.3
1.5 2.0 0.3 0.1 0.31 0.5 0.08
0 0
Start-up Cut-in speed Cut-out Survival Max. electric Rotor Turbine Specific Start-up Cut-in speed Cut-out Survival Electric Rotor Turbine Specific
speed (m/s) speed speed output diameter length capital cost speed (m/s) speed speed output diameter length capital cost
(m/s) (dam/s) (dam/s) (hW) (m) (m) (€/W) (m/s) (m/s) (dam/s) (kW) (m) (m) (d€/W)
9
7
7.0
Maximum value (c) Maximum value
Minimum value
(d)
8 Minimum value
6
Average value Average value
8.07 6.0
7 Standard deviation 6.6 Standard deviation 4.8
6.5 5.1
6.2 5
4.0
6 6.0 1.0
5.1 4.0
4
5 3.4
0.8
4.0 4.0 2.3
3.0 2.4
4
3 1.8
2.5 3.5 4.0 1.9
2.9 1.6
2.9 2.3 3.0
3 1.38 1.8 1.82
2.1 0.4 2.3 1.6 2 1.0 1.5
1.2 0.9 0.7
2 0.4 1.4 0.6 1.0
1.77
1.4 0.9 1 1.1
1 2.0 1.5 1.2 0.40
1.1 1.0 0.42
1.0 0.8 0.11 0.7 0.4 0.8
0.06
0 0
Start-up Cut-in speed Cut-out Survival Electric Rotor Turbine Specific Start-up Cut-in speed Cut-out Survival Electric Rotor Turbine Specific
speed (m/s) speed speed output diameter length capital cost speed (m/s) speed speed output diameter length capital cost
(m/s) (dam/s) (dam/s) (kW) (m) (m) (€/W) (m/s) (dam/s) (dam/s) (kW) (m) (m) (d€/W)
35 35
Maximum value
Minimum value
(e) Maximum
(f)
Minimum
30 33.0 30 32.1
Average value Average value
Standard deviation Standard deviation
25 25

18.4
20 20
14.1

8.4
15 13.0 15 12.0
12.0
9.8 5.2 6.0 8.0
3.3
10 11.0 10
7.0 5.6 2.4 4.0
2.7
2.7 4.5 6.0 5.2
1.8
5.0 4.3 4.1 4.5 2.79
3.1 3.7 7.0 3.49 3.5 2.0
5 1.6 0.0 2.36 5 7.0 1.38
1.1
0.4 0.9 2.0 5.2 1.0 4.0 4.3
0.9 1.13
2.2 2.0 1.0 2.5 1.33 0.7 2.0 1.2 2.8 0.4
0
0.91 0.8 0.6 0.03
0
Start-up Cut-in speed Cut-out Survival Electric Rotor Turbine Specific Start-up Cut-in speed Cut-out Survival Electric Rotor Turbine Specific
speed (m/s) speed speed output diameter length capital cost speed (m/s) speed speed output diameter length capital cost
(m/s) (dam/s) (dam/s) (kW) (m) (m) (€/W) (m/s) (dam/s) (dam/s) (kW) (m) (m) (€/W)

Figure 2. Summary of performance and geometry of SWTs selected in this paper: HAPWTs (a), VAP-
Figure 2. Summary of performance and geometry of SWTs selected in this paper: HAPWTs (a),
WTs (b), HAMCWTs (c), VAMCWTs (d), HAMNWTs (e), and VAMNWTs (f).
VAPWTs (b), HAMCWTs (c), VAMCWTs (d), HAMNWTs (e), and VAMNWTs (f).
According to Tables 3–8 and Figure 2a–f, the cut-in wind speed ranges from a mini-
According to Tables 3–8 and Figure 2a–f, the cut-in wind speed ranges from a minimum
mum of 0.7 m/s (in the cases of VAPWTs and VAMCWTs) up to a maximum of 5.4 m/s (in
of 0.7 m/s (in the cases of VAPWTs and VAMCWTs) up to a maximum of 5.4 m/s (in the
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 50
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 23 of 43

the
casecase of HAPWTs),
of HAPWTs), while
while the the specific
specific capital
capital cost cost is0.03
is between between
EUR/W 0.03
(forEUR/W
VAMNWTs) (for
VAMNWTs) and 44.7 EUR/W
and 44.7 EUR/W (for HAPWTs). (for HAPWTs).
Figure
Figure 3a–f
3a–findicates
indicatesthe
theblades’
blades’material
material as as
reported in Tables
reported 3–8.3–8.
in Tables In particular, Fig-
In particular,
ure 3a refers
Figure to HAPWTs,
3a refers to HAPWTs, Figure 3b3b
Figure corresponds
corresponds toto
VAPWTs,
VAPWTs,Figure
Figure3c3cisisfor
forHAMCWTs,
HAMCWTs,
Figure
Figure 3d
3d refers
referstotoVAMCWTs,
VAMCWTs,FigureFigure3e3e
corresponds
corresponds to to
HAMNWTs
HAMNWTs andand Figure 3f is3ffor
Figure is
VAMNWTs.
for VAMNWTs.

28 Durable injection-molded PC-ABS + Glass Reinforced plastic 35

Rigid plastic Plastic

(a) (b)
Aluminum alloy
24 Carbon fiber reinforced with plastics Carbon fiber and Nylon 30
Nylon fiber
Fiberglass composite Reinforced Polyamide PAG
Anodized Aluminum
20 Fiberglass reinforced Polyester Injection molded composite - 25
Blue + Plastic and Carbon fiber Stainless Steel and Aluminum
Number of HAPWTs

Hand laminated and Carbon fiber Injection molded composite

Number of VAPWTs
16 Nylon fiber and Fiberglass Fiberglass 20 Glass and Basalt

Nylon fiber PP + Fiberglass Carbon fiber

12 UV-resistant Plastic + Composite Materials 15
Aluminum
30% glass fibers blades & Cast Aluminum
Carbon fiber composite,
fiber glass & epoxy bonding Thermoplastic
8 10

4 5

0 0
Material of blades Materials of blades
10 Composite materials & Aluminum Fiberglass reinforced Nylon 4 Anodized Aluminum
Fiberglass composite Fiberglass composite and Epoxy
(c) Aluminum (d)
9
Glass and Basalt
Fiberglass and Carbon fiber Fiberglass reinforced Polyester
Polyamide + 30% Fiberglass
8
Carbon fiber laminate Steel Carbon fiber
over solid foam core 3
7 Anodized aluminum Composite FE 1630PW Aluminum alloy
Number of VAMCWTs

Nylon fiber
Number of HAMCWTs

Fiberglass and Nylon Fiberglass

6 Thermoplastic
Polypropylene and Fiberglass Reinforced fiberglass Carbon fiber composite
5 Aluminum Carbon fiber composite 2

PP + Fiberglass UV-resistant Plastic +

4 30% glass fibers blades
Nylon fiber Carbon fiber composite,
fiber glass & epoxy bonding
3
1
2

0 0
Materials of blades Materials of blades
3 6

Reinforced fiberglass (e) Nylon fiber (f)

Carbon fiber 5 Resin Glass and Basalt

Fiberglass
Fiberglass
Number of VAMNWTs
Number of HAMNWTs

2 4
Glass Fiber
Reinforced Polymer
3 Composite

Aluminum
1 2

0 0
Materials of blades Materials of blades

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Summary
Summary of
of blades
blades material
material of
of SWTs
SWTs selected
selected in
in this
this paper:
paper: HAPWTs
HAPWTs (a),
(a), VAPWTs
VAPWTs (b),
(b),
HAMCWTs (c), VAMCWTs (d), HAMNWTs (e), and VAMNWTs (f).
HAMCWTs (c), VAMCWTs (d), HAMNWTs (e), and VAMNWTs (f).

As
As reported
reported in
in Table
Table 33 and
and Figure
Figure 3a,
3a, it
it can
can be
be highlighted
highlighted that
that fibreglass
fibreglass is
is the
the most
most
used material for blade manufacturing, corresponding to 8 out of 47
used material for blade manufacturing, corresponding to 8 out of 47 HAPWTs.HAPWTs.
According
According to
to Table
Table 44 and
and Figure
Figure 3b,
3b, Aluminium
Aluminium is is the
the most
most used
used material
material for
for blade
blade
manufacturing, corresponding to 34 out of 67 VAPWTs.
manufacturing, corresponding to 34 out of 67 VAPWTs.
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 24 of 43

Table 5 and Figure 3c underline that the combination of UV-resistant plastic with
30% glass fibres is the most used material for blade manufacturing, corresponding to 9 out
of 50 HAMCWTs.
Table 6 and Figure 3d indicate that aluminium and the combination of glass with
basalt are the most used materials for blade manufacturing, both corresponding to 3 out of
23 VAMCWTs.
According to Table 7 and Figure 3e, fibreglass is the most used material for blade
manufacturing, corresponding to two out of six HAMNWTs.
According to Table 8 and Figure 3f, aluminium is the most used material for blade
manufacturing, corresponding to 5 out of 14 VAMNWTs.
Tables 3 and 4 also show that:
• In total, 47 out of 114 PWTs models (41.23% of total) are characterized by a horizontal axis;
• In total, 23 HAPWTs (48.94% of total) use direct current (DC), 16 HAPWTs (34.04% of
total) use alternating current (AC), and 5 HAPWTs (10.64% of total) can be supplied
by both direct current or alternating current;
• HAPWTs have a tower height range of 0.814–13.7 m;
• HAPWTs are characterized by a noise level between 28 dB and 65 dB;
• HAPWTs can have a battery capacity ranging from 0.012 and 480 Ah;
• In total, 41 out of 67 VAPWTs models (61.19% of total) are characterized by Savonius
rotors, 21 (31.34% of total) are characterized by Darrieus rotors and 5 (7.47% of total)
present a hybrid rotor configuration;
• In total, 39 VAPWTs (58.21% of total) use direct current (DC) and 24 VAPWTs (35.82% of
total) use alternating current (AC);
• VAPWTs have a tower height range of 0.91–12.0 m;
• VAPWTs are characterized by a noise level between 2 dB and 50 dB;
• VAPWTs can have a battery capacity ranging between 100 and 200 Ah.
Tables 5 and 6 also highlight that:
• In total, 50 out of 73 MCWTs models (68.49% of total) are characterized by a horizon-
tal axis;
• In total, 24 HAMCWTs (48% of total) use direct current (DC), 12 HAMCWTs (24% of
total) use alternating current (AC), and 2 HAMCWTs (4% of total) can be supplied by
both direct current or alternating current;
• HAMCWTs have a tower height range of 1.41–49.0 m;
• HAMCWTs are characterized by a noise level between 20 dB and 47.2 dB;
• HAMCWTs can have a battery capacity ranging from 150 to 550 Ah;
• In total, 6 out of 23 VAMCWTs (26.09% of total) are characterized by Savonius rotors,
11 (47.82% of total) are characterized by Darrieus rotors and 6 (26.09% of total) present
a hybrid rotor configuration;
• In total, 5 VAMCWTs (21.74% of total) use direct current (DC) and 12 VAMCWTs
(52.17% of total) use alternating current;
• VAMCWTs have a tower height range of 1.0–18.0 m;
• VAMCWTs are characterized by a noise level ranging from 38 to 54 dB.
Tables 7 and 8 also show that:
• In total, 6 out of 20 MNWTs (30% of total) are characterized by a horizontal axis;
• One HAMNWTs (16.67% of total) uses direct current (DC), and three HAMNWTs
(50% of total) use alternating current;
• HAMNWTs have a tower height range of 12.00–49.00 m;
• HAMNWTs have a noise level ranging from 20 dB to 65 dB;
• In total, 5 out of 14 VAMCWTs (35.71% of total) are characterized by Savonius rotors,
8 (57.14% of total) are characterized by Darrieus rotors and 1 (7.15% of total) presents
a hybrid rotor configuration;
• One VAMNWT (7.15% of total) uses direct current (DC), while five VAMNWTs
(35.71% of total) use alternating current;
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 25 of 43

• VAMNWTs have a tower height range of 3.0–18.0 m.

5. Scientific Experimental Studies of Commercial SWTs

Some scientific works investigated the performance of commercially available SWTs in
urban areas from an experimental point of view. In this paper, a comprehensive keyword
search has been firstly performed on several sources (scientific journal articles, conference
papers, scientific books and reports, review studies, etc.); secondly, the relevant articles
have been selected and reviewed based on their relevance to the topic of study. In particular,
10 papers [27,28,258–265] focusing on this topic have been found by the authors in the
ScienceDirect database [261]. This section describes the above-mentioned papers in order
to detail the following aspects:
• The experimentally analysed SWT model;
• The experimental test apparatus and procedure;
• The sensors and related accuracy;
• The experimental results.
Table 9 describes the principal characteristics of the SWTs investigated in the selected
10 scientific papers. In particular, this table reports the type (horizontal or vertical), manu-
facturer, model, number of blades, start-up, cut-in, cut-out, survival wind speed, maximum
power, voltage, rotor diameter, turbine length, tower height, capital cost, specific capital
cost, materials of blades, noise level, and battery capacity of the SWTs experimentally
investigated in [27,28,258–265]. The papers of Elshazly et al. [263] and Castelli et al. [28]
analysed two different SWTs.
This table indicates that only 10 scientific papers experimentally investigated the
performance of small-scale wind turbines available on the market (despite the wide range
of choices), highlighting that further researches have to be performed with reference to
such systems to take this technology one step further; in particular, only two scientific
experimental studies have been devoted to vertical axis SWTs, underlining that such kind
of wind turbine strongly requires additional attention in the future. In addition, it should
be highlighted that the study of Pellegrini et al. [259], Castelli and Benini [28] and Lo
Brano et al. [265] have been performed through on-site data acquisition, while the others
have been carried out by means of a closed wind tunnel system; therefore, additional field
performance analyses should be considered taking into account the local wind resource
(which is highly site-specific), the presence of buildings and surrounding trees, the way
the building envelope interacts with the direction of the wind and the intensity of the
turbulence the turbine encounters, etc.
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 26 of 43

Table 9. Main characteristics of the SWTs experimentally analysed in [27,28,258–265].

Capital Cost
Start-Up/Cut-In/Cut- Rotor Diameter/Turbine Battery
Typology/Manufacturer/Model/Number Maximum Power (EUR)/Specific Materials of Noise
References Out/Survival Wind Length/Tower Height Capacity
of Blades (W)/Voltage (V) Capital Cost Blades Level
Speed (m/s) (m) (Ah)
(EUR/W)
2800/220–380 or Anodized
[258] Horizontal/ItalSol/Anemos 455/5 [180] 2.0/3.0/15.0/44.44 2.0/1.6/NA NA/NA NA NA
24–48 (AC/DC) aluminium
Carbon fibre
Horizontal/Zaphyr/Airdolphin 2300/25
[259] 2.5/3.5/50.0/65.0 1.8/NA/3.5–9.0 5574.74/2.42 laminate over NA 420
Mark-Zero Model Z-1000-24/3 [174–177] (DC)
solid foam core
Horizontal/Bergey
[266] 2.5/3.0/54.0/54.0 ~1225/12–48 (DC) 2.5/2.1/2.5 9886.97/8.07 Fibreglass NA NA
Windpower/Excel-1/3 [185,186]
Horizontal/Foshan Ouyad Electronic 1500/48
[261] 2.0/3.0/25.0/35.0 3.0/NA/6 793.58/0.53 Fibreglass NA NA
Co. Ltd./FD3.0-1000/3 [203,204] (DC)
Horizontal/Primus
450/12–48 Hand laminated
[262] Windpower/SilentWind Air X 3.59/NA/15.65/49.2 1.17/0.675/7.6–13.7 1903.30/4.23 NA NA
(DC) and carbon fibre
Marine—blue carbon fibre Blades/3 [85]
Fibreglass
Horizontal/Clean Energy Storage 525/230
[263] 2.0/3.0/22.0/40.0 1.1/1.857/8.9–10.9 1607.0/3.06 reinforced NA NA
Inc./Energy Ball V100/6 [82–84] (DC)
polyester
Fibreglass
Horizontal/Clean Energy Storage 2250/230
[263] 2.0/3.0/20.5/40.0 1.98/3.524/12.0–15.0 5113.35/2.27 reinforced 45 dB NA
Inc./Energy Ball V200/5 [171–173] (AC)
polyester
Horizontal/WINDFORCE™/XUNZEL- 600/12–24
[27] 1.0/2.0/NA/50.0 1.31/0.85/8.8 1307.90/2.18 PP + Fibreglass NA 240–480
6000/3 [97,98] (DC)
Vertical (Darrieus)/VWT Power/
6500/NA
[28] Quiet Revolution/Qr5/3 NA/4.0/16.0/52.5 3.1/5.0/6.0–18.0 45,937.20/7.10 Carbon fibre NA NA
(DC)
[222,223]
Vertical (Savonius)/WINDSIDE/WS-12/2
[28] 2.0/2.5/40.0/60.0 25,000/12–48 (DC) 2.0/8.0/10 NA/NA Aluminium 0.3–5 dB NA
[252–254]
Horizontal/Bergey
[264] 2.2/2.5/60.0/60.0 ~6600/240 (AC) 6.16/4.0/24–49 42,878.90/6.50 NA 47.2 dB NA
Windpower/Excel-6/3 [205]
Carbon fibre
Horizontal/Southwest composite,
[265] 2.5/3.1/20.3/55.0 1000/12–48 (DC) 2.7/NA/NA 5890.64/5.89 NA NA
Windpower/Whisper 200/3 [158] fibreglass and
epoxy bonding
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 27 of 43

5.1. Experimental Study by Eltayesh et al. [258]

The study by Eltayesh et al. [258] analyses the effects of blade number on the per-
formance of a small-scale horizontal-axis micro wind turbine; in particular, the model
“Anemos 455” manufactured by the company ItalSol (Arezzo, Italy) [180] is analysed. This
study is performed in the Department of Engineering of the University of Perugia (Italy)
via an experimental set-up basically consisting of a closed-circuit wind tunnel with a cross-
section of 5.7 m × 3.4 m and a maximum achievable air velocity of 47.0 m/s at the test
section inlet. Velocity and pressure at the test section inlet are recorded by using two Pitot
tubes and a cup anemometer with a maximum error equal to 0.8% of reading.
The experiments are performed by considering three, five and six blades (where five
is the number of blades of the commercial version of the wind turbine). The turbine blades
have a constant pitch angle and are linked to the hub. The analyses have been carried out
at different inlet wind velocities of 6.0, 7.0, and 8.0 m/s to determine the corresponding tip
speed ratio (TSR). The power coefficient Cp and the thrust coefficient CT are derived from
the recorded data by means of the following equations:

V·I
Cp = (3)
0.5 · ρ · π · R2 · v3

T
CT = (4)
0.5 · ρ · π · R2 · v3
In the previous equations, I represents the current intensity, V denotes the voltage, v
signifies the wind velocity in the wind tunnel, ρ stands for the density of air, T represents the
thrust force, and R indicates the radius of the rotor. Current intensity is quantified using cur-
rent transducers (specifically model MCR-S-1-5 [267]), featuring a maximum error of 2% of
the reading. Voltage is acquired through a voltage transducer (model LV 25-P/Sp5 [268]),
characterized by an accuracy of 2.0% of the reading. The wind turbine incorporates a
three-dimensional load cell (Futek model MAT400 [269]) for a precise measurement of T,
with an accuracy of 0.353% of the reading. Furthermore, the turbine’s rotational speed is
monitored and measured via an optical sensor (model XUB5APBNL2 [270]).
Experimental data indicate that the optimal power coefficient for the three-blade wind
turbine surpasses that of configurations employing other numbers of blades, occurring at a
tip speed ratio of six, whatever the inlet velocity is. For configurations utilizing five and six
blades, the maximum CT is achieved at a TSR of 3.3, while the highest CT for the three-blade
configuration occurs at TSR = 4. Moreover, the experiments reveal a notable enhancement
in CP when employing three blades compared to five blades. In summary, this investigation
emphasizes that (i) higher turbine solidity results in a lower cut-in wind speed, rendering
high-solidity turbines suitable for operation in low wind speed conditions, and (ii) an
increase in the blade number leads to greater torque but also higher friction losses.

5.2. Experimental Study by Pellegrini et al. [259]

The study by Pellegrini et al. [259] focuses on an extensive analysis (more than
12 months) of a horizontal axis micro wind turbine (model “Airdolphin Mark-Zero Pro”
produced by the company Zephyr Corporation (Tokyo, Japan) [174–177]) operated at the
outside development centre HEnergia of HERA S.p.A. in Forlì (Italy).
To reduce the effect of barriers, the wind turbine is installed 6 m above the ground.
AC voltage and current together with AC power produced are measured; in addition, wind
speed and wind direction, solar global irradiation, ambient temperature and humidity, are
monitored through a local meteorological station. The measurements of wind velocity are
carried out with an accuracy equal to 0.1 m/s or ±1% of reading, while wind direction is
evaluated with an accuracy equal to 1% of the measurement range (0–360◦ ).
A total electric energy generation equal to 13.68 kWh is measured with reference to
an operating period of 249 h; the measured energy is 29.4 Wh, 6655.0 Wh, 4937.7 Wh and
2194.8 Wh with reference to the wind speed ranges 2.5–3 m/s, 3–4 m/s, 4–5 m/s, and
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 28 of 43

5–6 m/s, respectively. The highest measured daily electrical energy generation (equal to
1.17 kWh/day, i.e., 8.55% of the total) is obtained on April 1st characterized by a total
number of working hours equal to 10.8 h/day, with a mean wind velocity equal to 2.89 m/s
and a maximum wind velocity of 15.8 m/s. The authors indicate that, according to the
experimental results, the investigated wind turbine is not suitable from an economic point
of view in the considered installation site due to the very low annual average wind speed.

5.3. Experimental Study by Kanya and Visser [260]

In the study by Kanya and Visser [260], the performances of a commercially available
horizontal axis micro wind turbine (model “Excel-1” manufactured by the company Bergey
Windpower (Norman, OK, USA) [185,186]) are measured and compared with a prototype
rotor under both ducted and open configurations.
The duct is composed of StyroSpray polymer-coated EPS foam [266]. The duct’s 3.3 m
exit diameter results in a 1.74 ratio between the rotor and exit areas; the duct length’s
ratio to the rotor diameter and exit areas is 0.25 and 0.19, respectively. A 1800 W radial
flux permanent magnet generator (type GL-PMG-1800, manufactured by the company
Ningbo Ginlong Technologies Co., Ltd. (Ningbo, China) [271]) is connected to the rotor.
The flow field is generated by a bank of 6–100 hp fans with independent variable speed
control. Wind velocity is measured with a single-location sonic anemometer. The prototype
rotor is initially tested without a duct in an open rotor configuration; once enough data
are collected, the duct is attached to the rotor and the tests are repeated. Then, the duct is
removed, and the tests are conducted again in an open prototype rotor configuration. Wind
velocity in the tunnel is adjusted in steps of 1 m/s until the generator’s maximum rated
power output of 1800 W is marginally exceeded.
At 9 m/s, for instance, the model “Excel-1” manufactured by the company Bergey
Windpower (Norman, OK, USA) [185,186] generates about 700 W; the open rotor configu-
ration provides about 925 W, while the prototype rotor output increases to about 1880 W
with the duct installed. The power coefficient of the open prototype rotor configuration
remains fairly constant at 0.4 for wind speeds in the range 5–9 m/s, while the ducted
configuration of the prototype rotor generates a power coefficient in the range 0.49–0.52
in the case of the same wind speeds, better than the open rotor configuration. The model
“Excel-1” manufactured by the company Bergey Windpower (Norman, OK, USA) [185,186]
reaches a maximum power coefficient of about 0.37 at 7 m/s.

5.4. Experimental Study by Hasan et al. [261]

The study by Hasan et al. [261] experimentally evaluates in a laboratory the perfor-
mance of a commercial micro horizontal axis wind turbine (model “FD3.0-1000” manu-
factured by the company Foshan Ouyad Electronic Co., Ltd. (Foshan, China) [203,204]) at
wind velocities of 4, 5, and 6 m/s.
Nine centrifugal shutter exhaust fans (model DJF-1380 [272]) are employed in the
testing; each fan is controlled independently by a control panel, allowing the wind field
pattern to be simulated. A generator with a 1 kW permanent magnet synchronization is
directly connected to the turbine. On a grid mesh made up of 81 cells, a five-hole probe
(AP4K USB system type [273]) with a maximum flow velocity of up to 30 m/s and accuracy
±0.8% of reading is placed. Measurements of voltage and current have an accuracy of
±1% of the reading.
At wind velocities of 4, 5, and 6 m/s, the power coefficient of the investigated wind
turbine is 0.253, 0.258, and 0.2588, respectively, at tip speed ratios ranging from 5 to 6; at
wind velocities of 4, 5, and 6 m/s, the power output is, respectively, in the ranges 65–89 W,
115–163.9 W and 190–306 W.

5.5. Experimental Study by Singh and Ahmed [262]

This study presents the performance of a horizontal axis pico wind turbine (model
“SilentWind Air X Marine” manufactured by the company Primus Windpower (Lakewood,
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 29 of 43

CO, USA) [85]) characterized by a rotor diameter of 1.16 m with three blades. A novel
airfoil is also designed, and the operation of a two-bladed rotor with a diameter of 1.26 m
is tested in the wind speed range 3–6 m/s. The pitch of the blades is varied by considering
three angles equal to 15◦ , 18◦ and 20◦ . The turbines are mounted on a pole with a height
of 8.22 m in an open field in front of the ocean at the University of the South Pacific’s
marine campus.
Data logging is facilitated by a CR1000 Campbell Scientific data logger (Logan, UT,
USA) [274], which records average current, voltage and wind speed values at 10 s intervals
with a measurement frequency rate of 1 s. Wind speed measurements are conducted using
a three-cup A101M anemometer from Vector Instruments [275] capable of measuring wind
speeds up to 75 m/s with a resolution equal to 0.1 m/s. A mean temperature equal to 25 ◦ C
is also measured.
Comparisons between the power generation of the two-bladed and three-bladed rotors
are made possible because of their comparable diameter sizes (1.26 m vs. 1.16 m), rotor
solidities (8.27% vs. 8.24%), and suitability for applications characterized by reduced wind
speeds. Thanks to its 8.62% longer blades, the two-bladed rotor consistently outperforms
the three-bladed rotor in power production, regardless of pitch angle. Furthermore, at any
given wind speed, the three-bladed rotor achieves maximum power output at a pitch angle
of 18◦ . However, at this optimal pitch angle, the two-bladed rotor generates more than
twice the power of its three-bladed counterpart. The power output of the three-bladed
rotor is equal to the one corresponding to the two-bladed rotor only for a pitch angle of
15◦ up to a wind speed of 4 m/s. The two-bladed rotor begins generating power at cut-in
wind speeds of 2.98, 2.34 and 2.38 m/s in the case of pitch angles equal to 15◦ , 18◦ and 20◦ ,
respectively, while a cut-in wind speed of 3.58 m/s is found in case of the three-bladed
rotor. The two-bladed rotor achieves a power coefficient of 0.l, 0.217 and 0.255 at wind
speeds of 4, 5 and 6 m/s, respectively, whereas the three-bladed rotor achieves a power
coefficient equal to 0.052, 0.112 and 0.15, respectively, at the same wind speeds.

5.6. Experimental Study by Elshazly et al. [263]

The study by E. Elshazly et al. [263] is conducted on the horizontal axis wind turbine
named “Energy Ball Wind Turbine” (EBWT). The Home Energy company (Hoofddorp,
The Netherlands) [171] developed two versions of this wind turbine: version V100 [82–84]
(a pico wind turbine) and version V200 [171–173] (a micro wind turbine). The EBWT V100
wind turbine [82–84] and the EBWT V200 wind turbine [171–173] dimensions are scaled
down 1:4, realizing the EBWT V50 wind turbine prototype and the EBWT V25 wind turbine
prototype, respectively. Experiments are performed with reference to the EBWT V25 wind
turbine prototype.
A small blow-down type wind tunnel, equipped with a fan to change the wind speed,
is used to perform the tests. The test section is 2.9 m long and characterized by an inlet
diameter of 0.75 m as well as an outlet diameter of 0.50 m. The air velocity is controlled
by using a variable resistance switch. The experiments are carried out at different wind
speeds (3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 m/s). A high-resolution anemometer located at the wind tunnel’s
exit around the rotor and a portable anemometer are used to measure wind speed. Both
contact and non-contact digital laser tachometers are used to measure the rotor’s rotating
speed. Six and three-bladed turbines are taken into consideration for each of the three hub
angles (20◦ , 25◦ , and 30◦ ) that are examined.
The 20◦ hub angle shows the best performance, while the 30◦ hub angle is characterized
by the lowest power coefficient. The largest power coefficient for the configuration with
a 20◦ twist angle is 0.14. The experimental tests indicate that in the cases of 25◦ and 30◦
hub angles, the rotation starts at 6 m/s, while in the case of the 20◦ hub angle, the rotation
starts at 5 m/s. At 7 m/s, the power coefficient of the six-bladed EBWT V25 wind turbine is
better than the one corresponding to the three-bladed version. The measured data confirm
that the two most important factors to increase the wind turbine efficiency are the number
of blades and the blade’s twist angle.
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 30 of 43

5.7. Experimental Study by Lee et al. [27]

The study by Lee et al. [27] investigates and compares the aerodynamic performance
of two types of blades, namely the BEMT-blade designed according to the blade element
momentum theory (BEMT) and the baseline-blade, a non-twisted and non-tapered type
with constant chord length. The horizontal axis pico wind turbine tested in the experiments
is the model “XUNZEL-6000” manufactured by the company WINDFORCE™ (Mendaro,
Spain) [97,98] (even if the authors do not exactly specify the wind turbine model). The
SD8000 airfoil is selected for the turbine blade due to its exceptional lift-to-drag ratio and
its capability to achieve higher power coefficients.
Full-scale rotor blade testing is conducted in the wind tunnel at the Architecture and
Building Research Institute (ABRI), featuring a test section measuring 36.5 m (length) × 4 m
(width) × 2.6 m (height). With two test sections and a closed-circuit design, the ABRI wind
tunnel can attain a maximum wind speed of 36.5 m/s. Turbulence intensity stays below
0.35%, while the average flow uniformity is kept lower than 0.37%. Pitot tubes are used to
determine wind speed in the free flow at the test section, and pressure transducers are used
to calibrate the results. A torque sensor is used to detect mechanical power as a function of
rotational speed through the connection of rotor blades.
The DC electronic load module (DCELM), which has three modes (constant-voltage,
constant-current, and constant-resistance) is used to mimic different circuit loads; the
DCELM modifies the applied loads during generator operation to keep each mode’s
current, voltage, or resistance constant. In order to stabilize the resulting torque and
rotational speed, the constant-voltage mode is used during the experiments. At 8 and
10 wind speeds, the wind tunnel produces tip speed ratios that vary from zero to eight for
various rotational velocities.
Results indicate that the BEMT-blade rotor exhibits significantly larger power coef-
ficients compared to the baseline-blade rotor at equivalent wind velocities. Specifically,
at 10 m/s, the BEMT-blade rotor achieves the highest power coefficient of 0.469 at a tip
speed ratio of 5.61. Additionally, the BEMT-blade rotor exhibits a wider variety of tip speed
ratios, which results in greater power coefficients in the range between four and eight;
because of the high angles of attack at the blade roots, the related power coefficients are
quite low for tip speed ratios less than 3.5. The baseline-blade rotor achieves its largest
power coefficient of about 0.3 for a tip speed ratio equal to 5.08; for the baseline-blade rotor,
the power coefficient approaches zero when the tip speed ratio is below 2.5.

5.8. Experimental Study of Castelli and Benini [28]

The study of Castelli and Benini [28] describes the performance of the commercial
vertical axis small-scale wind turbine model “Qr5” manufactured by the company Quiet Rev-
olution (St.Ives, Cambridgeshire, UK) [222,223] (which is a lift-driven Darrieus-type turbine).
Anemometric measurements are performed in Hortis Square, in the historical centre of
Trieste (Italy), where the wind energy potential is quite poor, with the yearly average wind
speed equal to about 3.2 m/s; measurements are made at a different site (even if relatively
close) with respect to the installation site of the wind turbine as well as without taking into
account how the turbine interacts with the building and its surroundings; then, the annual
electric energy generation of the wind turbine is evaluated according to the measured wind
speeds as well as the performance curves suggested by the corresponding manufacturer.
The “Qr5” turbine produces most of the annual electric energy in the case of high
wind speeds (with maximum electric energy generation at about 11.5 m/s). In more detail,
its estimated annual electric energy production is equal to 1458 kWh for the “Qr5”.

5.9. Experimental Study by Moussa [264]

The study by Moussa [264] uses outdoor experimental measurements on the horizontal
axis micro wind turbine model “Excel-6” manufactured by the company Bergey Windpower
(Norman, OK, USA) [205] (even if the author does not precisely specify the wind turbine
model) to determine its power coefficient.
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 31 of 43

The wind turbine’s voltage and current are monitored, and the associated electrical
output is calculated. Concurrently, wind speed is measured by means of a weather station
that is situated at the same altitude as the rotor. The power coefficient is estimated by
using an experimental setup that includes batteries, a human–machine interface, a power
inverter, an inverter load controller, a frequency regulator, a current rectifier, and a number
of components for dissipation of power. A meteorological receiver and a wattmeter (Fluke
345 PQ CLAMP METER1 2000A (Washington, DC, USA) [276]) are two examples of sensors
used to detect wind physics (speed intensity and direction) as well as the quantity of
power generated.
Moussa [264] reports that wind power is governed by a cubic law in relation to
wind speed. Furthermore, it is noted that the percentage of power dissipated through
cables and electrical inverters appears to be insensitive to both wind speed and turbine
rotation speeds. Additionally, experimental values of the power coefficient and tip speed
ratio exhibit a relationship that can be modelled by a fourth-degree polynomial function.
Finally, a maximum power coefficient of about 0.24 for a tip speed ratio of about 5.4 is
experimentally found.

5.10. Experimental Study by Lo Brano et al. [265]

Lo Brano et al. [265] conducted a monitoring campaign in the urban area of Palermo, lo-
cated in southern Italy, utilizing the horizontal axis pico wind turbine model “Whisper 200”
manufactured by the company Southwest Windpower (Fairview, AB, Canada) [158].
Weather conditions are measured using a weather station installed on the roof of
a building of the University of Palermo, positioned at a height of 2.7 m, near the wind
turbine installation site. A Fluke 189 Multimeter (Perugia, Italy) [277] is used to monitor the
voltage across a steady electrical load, while 3 and 4 Ω precision resistances (model RH250
manufactured by the company Vishay (Mansfield, MA, USA) [278]), with an accuracy of
±1% and temperature coefficients of ±50 ppm/◦ C, are configured in parallel and/or series
to calculate the load values. Every minute, data are taken, averaged across thirty samples,
and saved twice an hour; a period of three years is covered.
The authors employ both the power curve provided by the manufacturer and the
experimental power curve, along with measured wind speeds, to calculate the annual
producible energy at a height of 6.0 m. Results indicate that the utilization of the wind
turbine in Palermo does not result in a profitable investment, primarily because of the lack
of high wind speeds. They suggest positioning the wind turbine at an elevation ranging
between 25 m and 30 m in order to enhance energy production and reduce the investment
payback period. However, this proposal entails both increased installation costs as well as
plant visual impact, factors that require careful consideration.

6. Results and Discussion: Comparison between Experimental and Rated Performance

In this section, the experimental results of the papers previously described are com-
pared with the performance rated by the corresponding manufacturers in order to highlight
and assess the discrepancies.
Because the effective power curves are highly impacted by both the morphological
characteristics of the ground and the variations of wind speed intensity and associated
orientation, it should be underlined that the manufacturer and field performance of SWTs
might differ greatly [264,265]. During field operation, SWTs are generally subjected to
abrupt changes in wind speed and direction and they have a transition time in which,
attempting to adapt to novel conditions, the power energy generation is notably lower;
however, power curves issued suggested by manufacturers do not take these variations
into account and are defined in very stable and artificial conditions through the use of wind
tunnels [265]. Furthermore, because of the extremely turbulent wind patterns found in
built environments, SWTs may not perform as well under such complicated conditions
as suggested by manufacturers [10]. Moreover, it should be highlighted that the design
of roofs, the height of buildings, and the surrounding urban structures may all have a
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 32 of 43

substantial influence on wind acceleration [10,27]; this can make it challenging to provide a
consistent and dependable source of energy [10], which will lead to poor performance from
SWTs. Differences in the height at which the wind generator’s rotor is placed may also
potentially be the cause of the discrepancies between manufacturer and field data [265].
Lastly, because it is difficult to obtain high velocities in residential areas, the rated wind
speed is typically greater than the field data [261].
Operating SWTs under conditions that differ from those recommended by the man-
ufacturers can lead to significant discrepancies between actual and rated performance;
this can cause important consequences with relevant overestimates of SWTs’ performance
and, therefore, significant effects on the assessment of potential energy, economic, and
environmental benefits and overall suitability in the use of such technology. Consequently,
manufacturer’s data can be used for a preliminary and rough estimate of the SWTs per-
formance; they need field validation that takes into account the actual and real boundary
operating conditions in order to perform an accurate and effective assessment.
It has to be underlined that such kind of comparison between rated and field perfor-
mance is generally not performed in scientific studies generally because the data provided
by manufacturers are often not sufficiently detailed or complete to allow accurate and
precise comparisons. The results of the comparisons performed in this study can be sum-
marized as follows:
• In the case of five blades, the study by Eltayesh et al. [258] focused on the wind
turbine model “Anemos 455” manufactured by ItalSol [180], measured a maximum
power coefficient of approximately 0.43, while the manufacturer indicates a Cp higher
than 0.45;
• According to the study by Kanya and Visser [260], the open rotor configuration of
the wind turbine model “Excel-1” manufactured by the company Bergey Windpower
(Norman, OK, USA) [185,186] provides about 1200 W, while the manufacturer suggests
a power output of 900 W for the commercial version operating at the same velocity;
similarly, the open rotor configuration of this wind turbine exhibits a measured power
coefficient of 0.38 with respect to the value of 0.3 indicated by the manufacturer;
• The study of Hasan et al. [261] indicates that the experimental performance of the
wind turbine model “FD3.0-1000” manufactured by the company Foshan Ouyad
Electronic Co., Ltd. (Foshan, China) [203,204] is significantly reduced in comparison
to the performance specified by the manufacturer at wind velocities of 4, 5, and 6 m/s;
in particular, the measured power output at 4 m/s is in the range between 65 W and
89 W, while the manufacturer reports a value of about 300 W; the experimental power
output at 5 m/s is in the range between 115 W and 163.9 W, while the manufacturer
indicates a value of about 400 W; the measured power output at 6 m/s is in the range
between 190 W and 306 W, while the manufacturer suggests a value of about 500 W;
• The study by Singh and Ahmed [262] shows a cut-in wind speed of 3.58 m/s for the
wind turbine model “SilentWind Air X Marine” manufactured by the company Primus
Windpower (Lakewood, CO, USA) [85]; this value is almost equal to the one suggested
by the manufacturer. In addition, Singh and Ahmed [262] provide a power output of
about 40 W at a wind speed of about 7 m/s, while the manufacturer’s power curve
reports a value of about 65 W for the same wind velocity;
• Lee et al. [27] investigate the wind turbine model “XUNZEL-6000” manufactured by
the company WINDFORCE™ (Mendaro, Spain) [97,98] at 8 and 10 m/s only, even if
the manufacturer claims that this wind turbine is characterized by a cut-in wind speed
of 2.0 m/s with a survival wind speed of 50 m/s;
• Castelli and Benini [28] indicate that electric energy generation of the wind turbine
model “Qr5” manufactured by the company Quiet Revolution (St.Ives, Cambridgeshire,
UK) [222,223] starts at about 5.2 m/s, while the cut-in wind speed reported by the
manufacturer is 4 m/s; with respect to this point, it should be mentioned that anemo-
metric measurements are made at a different site (even if relatively close) with respect
to the installation site of the wind turbine;
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 33 of 43

• With reference to the wind turbine model “Excel-6” manufactured by the company
Bergey Windpower (Norman, OK, USA) [205], Moussa [264] reports a power coeffi-
cient ranging from a minimum of about 0.02 up to a maximum of about 0.24 for a
tip speed ratio changing between about 2.3 and about 5.4, while the manufacturer
indicates values of Cp varying between a minimum of 0.05 up to a maximum of 0.31
in the cases of wind velocity in the range 2.53–18.56 m/s;
• Lo Brano et al. [265] underline that the wind turbine model “Whisper 200” manu-
factured by the company Southwest Windpower (Fairview, AB, Canada) [158] has a
maximum power output of 900 W, while the manufacturer indicates a value of 972 W.
The experimental results also show that the real performance of the wind turbine is
totally different from the one indicated by the manufacturer. In particular, the authors
compare the annual energy production of the wind turbine in an urban area of Palermo
(south Italy) calculated via experimental power curves as well as via the power curve
issued by the manufacturer; they find significant deviations, underlining rated perfor-
mance much higher than those corresponding to the field data with deviations ranging
from a minimum of −75.5% up to a maximum of −86.6%. The authors attribute this
difference to the significant instability of wind speed conditions in the case of the
real installation with respect to the operation of the wind turbine established in a
wind tunnel; in particular, the field data highlight a significant variability as well as
low values of mean wind speed, causing experimental power curves to be much less
powerful than the rated one.

7. Conclusions
In this review, a comprehensive and up-to-date analysis of more than 200 commercially
available small-scale horizontal and vertical wind turbine models has been provided. They
have been mainly classified in terms of rated power output (considering pico, micro and
mini wind turbines) as well as distinguished between vertical and horizontal axis wind
turbines according to the wind turbine axis position. The characteristics of pico, micro and
mini wind turbines with a horizontal or vertical axis have been detailed, encompassing
factors such as the number and material of blades, start-up wind speed, cut-in wind speed,
cut-out wind speed, survival wind speed, maximum power output, noise level, rotor
diameter, turbine length, tower height, and specific capital cost.
The main results of this review can be summarized as follows:
• In total, 114, 73 and 20 pico, micro and mini wind turbines, respectively, are commer-
cially available;
• In total, 47 out of 114 pico wind turbines have a horizontal axis;
• In total, 50 out of 73 micro wind turbines have a horizontal axis;
• In total, 6 out of 20 mini wind turbines have a horizontal axis;
• The minimum, maximum and average cut-in speeds are 1.5 m/s, 5.4 m/s, 2.9 m/s,
respectively, with reference to the horizontal axis pico wind turbines;
• The minimum, maximum and average cut-in speeds are 0.7 m/s, 5.0 m/s, 2.6 m/s,
respectively, with reference to the vertical axis pico wind turbines;
• The minimum, maximum and average cut-in speeds are 2.0 m/s, 4.0 m/s, 2.9 m/s,
respectively, with reference to the horizontal axis micro wind turbines;
• The minimum, maximum and average cut-in speeds are 0.7 m/s, 4.0 m/s, 2.3 m/s,
respectively, with reference to the vertical axis micro wind turbines;
• The minimum, maximum and average cut-in speeds are 2.0 m/s, 4.5 m/s, 3.3 m/s,
respectively, with reference to the horizontal axis mini wind turbines;
• The minimum, maximum and average cut-in speeds are 2.0 m/s, 5.0 m/s, 2.7 m/s,
respectively, with reference to the vertical axis mini wind turbines;
• The minimum, maximum and average specific capital costs are 0.31 EUR/W, 16.89 EUR/W,
3.72 EUR/W, respectively, in the case of the horizontal axis pico wind turbines;
• The minimum, maximum and average specific capital costs are 0.82 EUR/W, 44.70 EUR/W,
6.24 EUR/W, respectively, in the case of the vertical axis pico wind turbines;
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 34 of 43

• The minimum, maximum and average specific capital costs are 0.11 EUR/W, 8.07 EUR/W,
1.38 EUR/W, respectively, in the case of the horizontal axis micro wind turbines;
• The minimum, maximum and average specific capital costs are 0.58 EUR/W, 18.16 EUR/W,
4.18 EUR/W, respectively, in the case of the vertical axis micro wind turbines;
• The minimum, maximum and average specific capital costs are 1.33 EUR/W, 3.49 EUR/W,
2.36 EUR/W, respectively, in the case of the horizontal axis mini wind turbines;
• The minimum, maximum and average specific capital costs are 0.03 EUR/W, 2.79 EUR/W,
1.38 EUR/W, respectively, in the case of the vertical axis mini wind turbines.
The scientific papers focusing on the experimental assessment of commercial small-
scale wind turbines have been reviewed, highlighting that a very limited number of
commercial SWTs have been analysed from an experimental point of view and significant
differences between rated and field performance can be recognized. Therefore, additional
studies are mandatory (mainly with reference to vertical axis small-scale wind turbines) in
order to better clarify such differences and fully assess the performance of this technology.
In particular, further tests under real operating conditions should be carried out in order to
better investigate the effects of site-specific local wind resources, the presence of obstacles
(surrounding buildings, trees, etc.), the turbulence level of wind flow, etc. In the future, it
would be desirable for manufacturers to provide more accurate and representative data on
the actual performance of SWTs, as well as it would be recommended for more detailed com-
parisons to be conducted in scientific papers between the data provided by manufacturers
and those actually measured in the field to effectively clarify the discrepancies.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.R., A.P. and L.M.; methodology, A.R., A.P. and L.M.;
software, A.R., A.P. and L.M.; validation, A.R., A.P. and L.M.; formal analysis, A.R., A.P. and L.M.;
investigation, A.R., A.P. and L.M.; resources, A.R. and L.M.; data curation, A.R., A.P. and L.M.;
writing—original draft preparation, A.R., A.P. and L.M.; writing—review and editing, A.R., A.P. and
L.M.; visualization, A.R., A.P. and L.M.; supervision, A.R., A.P. and L.M.; project administration, A.R.
and L.M.; funding acquisition, A.R. and L.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made
available by the authors upon request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or
in the decision to publish the results.

Nomenclature
A Swept area (m2 )
AC Alternating current (A)
Cp Power coefficient
CQ Torque coefficient
CT Thrust coefficient
DC Direct current (A)
HAMCWTs Horizontal axis micro wind turbines
HAMNWTs Horizontal axis mini wind turbines
HAPWTs Horizontal axis pico wind turbines
HAWTs Horizontal axis small-scale wind turbines
I Current (A)
MCWTs Micro wind turbines
MNWTs Mini wind turbines
PWTs Pico wind turbines
Pmax Maximum power output (W)
Prated Rated power output (W)
Pwind Kinetic power (W)
Energies 2024, 17, 3125 35 of 43

R Rotor radius (m)

SWTs Small-scale wind turbines
T Thrust force (N)
TSR Tip speed ratio
V Voltage (V)
v Wind speed (m/s)
VAMCWTs Vertical axis micro wind turbines
VAMNWTs Vertical axis mini wind turbines
VAPWTs Vertical axis pico wind turbines
VAWTs Vertical axis small-scale wind turbines
vin Cut-in wind speed (m/s)
vout Cut-out wind speed (m/s)
vr Rated wind speed (m/s)
vs Survival wind speed (m/s)
vup Start-up wind speed (m/s)
v1 Wind speed before the contact with the wind turbine (m/s)
v2 Wind speed after the contact with the wind turbine (m/s)
ρ Density (kg/m3 )
ω Angular velocity (rad/s)

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