UNIT-1
Importance of Battery:
Working and importance of Lithium-ion battery. Battery Terminology, Cycle
Ageing in Battery, Calendar Ageing in Batteries.
(04 Hrs)
Working and importance of Lithium-ion battery
Lithium-ion Battery Working
The rechargeable lithium-ion battery is made of one or more power-generating
compartments called cells. Each cell has essentially three components.- positive
electrode, negative electrode and electrolyte.
A positive electrode connects to the battery's positive or + terminal. A negative
electrode connects to the negative or − terminal. And a chemical called an
electrolyte in between them.
The positive electrode is typically made from a chemical compound called
lithium-cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) or lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4). The negative
electrode is generally made from carbon (graphite). The electrolyte varies from
one type of battery to another.
The electrolyte carries positively charged lithium ions from the anode to
the cathode.The movement of the lithium ions creates free electrons in the
anode which creates a charge at the positive current collector. The
electrical current then flows from the current collector through a device
abeing powered (cell phone, computer, etc.) to the negative current
collector. The separator blocks the flow of electrons inside the battery.
While the battery is discharging and providing an electric current, the anode
releases lithium ions to the cathode, generating a flow of electrons from one side
to the other. When plugging in the device, the opposite reaction happens, the
cathode releases lithium ions and anode receives them. This is how the
Lithium-ion battery works.
In this battery, the energy density and power density are most common
things of the battery. Generally, the energy density measures in watt-hours
per kilogram (wh/kg) and is the amount of energy the battery can store
with respect to its mass. Power density measures in watts per kilogram
(W/kg) and is the amount of power of battery with respect to its mass.
Advantages of Lithium-ion Battery
Now a days Lithium-ion batteries are popular because they have a number of
important advantages over competing technologies:
● Generally, they are much lighter than other types of rechargeable batteries
of the same size.
● They hold their charge. A lithium-ion battery pack loses only about 5
percent of its charge per month.
● High specific energy and high load capabilities with Power Cells
● Long cycle and extend shelf-life; maintenance-free. They can handle
hundreds of charge/discharge cycles.
● High capacity, low internal resistance, good coulombic efficiency
● Simple charge algorithm and reasonably short charge times
● Low self-discharge (less than half that of NiCd and NiMH)
Limitations of Lithium-ion Battery
● Requires protection circuit to prevent thermal runaway if stressed
● Degrades at high temperature and when stored at high voltage
● No rapid charge possible at freezing temperatures (<0°C, <32°F)
● Transportation regulations required when shipping in larger quantities
● They are extremely sensitive to high temperatures. Heat causes lithium-ion
battery packs to degrade much faster than they normally would.
Applications of Lithium-ion Battery
Lithium batteries have a long list of real-world applications beyond running the
apps on your phone. From life-saving medical equipment to luxury yachts, lithium
batteries keep both the essentials and the comforts of modern life running with
safety and reliability.
● UPS or Emergency Power Backup
It is different from a generator or other emergency power backup. It provides
nearly instant power in order to run (or safely shut down) the equipment it is
connected to.
● Reliable And Lightweight Marine Performance
Upgrading your boat with a long-lasting rechargeable lithium battery gives
you years of reliable motor starts at a fraction of the weight of a traditional
lead acid battery. Whether you need to power a small kitrolling motor,
lithium batteries are capable and dependable.
● Dependable Electric And Power RV
Lithium- ion batteries offer reliable, stable, long-lasting power. The best solution
for staying comfortable and safely exploring remote locations. Due to light weight
and size, the lithium ion batteries power your Recreational Vehicle or electric
vehicle with increased efficiency.
● Alarm Systems In Remote Locations
These batteries are ideal for remote monitoring systems due to long life, small
size. Also, they are not losing power via self-discharge during the time that your
system is inactive. Lithium batteries have a self-discharge rate that is 10 times
lower than lead acid batteries
● Storage of Solar Power
Rechargeable lithium ion batteries are the best match for solar panels due to their
fast charging. Solar panels produce low resistance charging, which is what lithium
batteries require. In addition, lithium batteries charge quickly which allows to
maximize the potential solar power storage from each day of sunlight.
● Personal Freedom With Mobility Equipment
From electric wheelchairs to stair lifts, numerous individuals depend on reliable
mobility technology to live an independent life. Lithium-ion batteries are the
ideal choice for mobility equipment, as they offer size customization, a longer life
span, fast charging, a low self-discharge rate and extended run time.
● Used in Portable Power Packs
Rechargeable lithium batteries are well-known for powering our phones and the
latest lightweight laptop computers. They also tolerate movement and
temperature changes, as well as maintain their power delivery during use.
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Battery Terminology
ABS Resin
A plastic material largely used for the case and cover of batteries.
Active Material
The substance which electrochemically reacts in the electrode of batteries.
Lead-acid batteries adopt lead dioxide for the positive electrode and spongy lead
for the negative electrode.
Ambient Temperature
Average temperature in the vicinity of the battery.
Available Capacity
The capacity actually available from a cell/battery. The available capacity is the
capacity of a battery when it discharges at a specified hour rate, and expressed in
hour rate and Ah.
Bolt Fastening Terminal
A type of battery terminals, to which lead wires are connected with bolts.
Built-In Thermostat
The built-in thermostat is a resettable switch built in a battery for temporarily cut
off the battery circuit when the temperature of the battery exceeds a preset value
or when the battery charges/discharges at a higher rate than predetermined.
Capacity
Capacity represents the specific energy in ampere-hours (Ah). Manufacturers
often overrate a battery by giving a higher Ah rating than it can provide. You can
use a battery with different Ah (but correct voltage), provided the rating is high
enough. Chargers have some tolerance to batteries with different Ah ratings. A
larger battery will take longer to charge than a small one.
Cell
The minimum battery unit which composes a storage battery. Nominal voltage of
the cell of the lead-acid battery is 2V.
Charge
The operation of supplying a battery with a DC current from an external power
source to have the electrode active materials conduct chemical reactions then to
store electric energy as chemical energy in the battery.
Charge Acceptance Test
Test of batteries to check whether or not they are adequately recharged after
discharge.
Charging Efficiency
General term for ampere-hour efficiency and watthour efficiency. In many cases,
however, it means the ampere-hour efficiency.
Chemistry
The most common chemistries are lead, nickel and lithium. Each system requires
its own charging algorithm. Unless provisions are made to change the charge
setting, different battery chemistries cannot be interchanged in the same charger.
Also observe the chemistry when shipping and disposing of batteries; each type
has a different regulatory requirement.
Cold Cranking Amps(CCA)
CCA specifies the ability to draw high load current at –18°C (0°F) on starter
batteries. Different norms specify dissimilar load durations and end voltages.
Constant Current Charge
A method of charging: to charge a battery with a constant current.
Constant Voltage Charge
A method of charging: to charge a battery by applying a constant voltage to the
terminals.
C-Rate
A charge or discharge current rate expressed inA or mA. It is numerically the
same as the hour rate capacity of a battery expressed inAh of the rated capacity.
C-rates specify charge and discharge currents. At 1C, the battery charges and
discharges at a current that is par with the marked Ah rating; at 0.5C the current
is half, and at 0.1C it is one tenth. On charge, 1C charges a good battery in about
one hour; 0.5C takes 2 hours and 0.1C 10 to 14 hours.
Cut-Off Voltage of Discharge
The terminal voltage of a battery at which discharging should be discontinued.
This voltage depends on discharge current, type of electrodes and construction of
battery.
Cycle Life
The number of charge/discharge/rest cycles a cell/battery can provide. Cycle life
is usually expressed by the number of cycles available before duration of
discharge decreases to a half of the initial value.
Depth of Discharge
A value to express the state of discharge of a battery. The depth of discharge is
generally expressed by the ratio of discharge amount to rated capacity of the
battery.
Discharge
To draw off the electric energy stored in a cell/battery.
Discharge Rate
The term to express the magnitude of discharge current. When assuming
discharge current and time to discharge cut-off voltage t hours, this discharge is
called t hour rate (tHR) discharge, and the current is called t-hour rate discharge
current. When time t is minutes instead of hours, tMR is used.
Duty Cycle Test
Test of batteries in ordinary use including charge, discharge and rest.
Electrolyte
The medium which serves to conduct ions in the electrochemical reactions in
batteries. The leadacid battery adopts diluted sulfuric acid as the electrolyte.
Energy Density
Energy available per unitApprox. mass or unit volume of a cell/ battery. Energy
density is expressed in Wh/kg or Wh/l.
Float Charge
The system in which a constant voltage is continuously applied to a battery
connected to a rectifier in parallel with a load to maintain the battery in charged
state: on occurrence of power failure or load variation, the battery supplies power
to the load without any short break.
Gas Recombinationability
Capability of a battery to recombine (or absorb) internally generated oxygen gas
at the negative plate. The greater this capability is, the larger the available charge
current.
High Rate Discharge
A very rapid discharge of a battery. (In many cases it means discharging at approx.
1 CA or higher rate.)
Internal Pressure
The pressure within a sealed battery. Internal pressure of a battery is increased
by oxygen gas which is generated from the positive plate at the end of charging.
Internal Resistance
The resistance within a battery: it is the total of individual resistances of the
electrolyte and the positive and negative plates. Internal resistance is simply
measured with the current four-terminal method (1,000 Hz) and expressed in the
composite value of resistance component and capacitor component.
Internal Short-Circuit
Touching of the positive and negative plates within a cell.
Life
The time period until a cell/battery loses its expected characteristics.
Load
Also known as electromotive force (EMF), the load draws energy from the battery.
Internal battery resistance and depleting state-of-charge cause the voltage to
drop.
Low Maintenance
Low maintenance means that no watering nor equalizing charge is required in
operating batteries.
Low-Voltage Cut-Off
A circuitry designed to discontinue discharge of a battery at a predetermined
voltage level.
Male Tab
The metallic pieces which are attached to a SLA battery as the terminals.
Memory Effect
A phenomenon where a temporary drop of discharge voltage is observed during
deep discharge of an alkaline rechargeable battery which has been subjected to
shallow charge/discharge. Cycles or trickle charging over long time.
Negative Plate
The battery electrode into which a current from the external circuit flows during
discharging. The negative plate has lower electric potential than the positive plate
to the electrolyte. The negative plate is incorporated with connection parts such
as the electrode pole.
Rated Capacity
A nominal value of capacity of a cell/battery, which is a measure of electric
capability. Rated capacity is rather approximate compared with rated capacity.
Nominal Voltage
A nominal value to indicate the voltage of a cell battery. Generally, nominal voltage
value of a battery is somewhat lower than its electromotive force. Nominal voltage
of the lead-acid battery is 2.0V per unit cell.
Open Circuit Voltage
Measured voltage of a cell/battery which is electrically disconnected from the
external circuit.
Overcharge
Continued charging of a fully charged cell/battery. With batteries which require
watering, overcharge causes electrolysis of water, resulting in rapid decrease of
electrolyte. Generally, overcharge adversely influences battery life.
Overdischarge
Discharge of a battery to a voltage below a predetermined cut-off voltage.
Parallel Charge
Simultaneous charging of two or more batteries connected in parallel. In cyclic
use of batteries, specifically, the parallel charge tends to cause an imbalance in
charge state among the batteries, which may shorten their service life.
Polypropylene Resin
A plastic material which is often used for the case and cover of batteries.
Positive Plate
The battery electrode from which a current flows to the external circuit during
discharging. The positive plate has higher electric potential than the negative
plate to the electrolyte. The positive plate is incorporated with connection parts
such as the electrode pole.
Quick Charge (Rapid Charge)
Charging in a short time with a large current.
Rated Capacity
The stated capacity of a battery; namely, the ampere-hour amount which can be
drawn from the battery in fully charged state at a specified temperature, at a
specified discharge rate, and to a specified cutoff voltage. The symbol CN may be
used to express the rated capacity of N-hour rate.
Rechargeable Battery
The rechargeable battery is a system comprising two different electrodes and an
ion-conductive medium, which is capable of converting chemical energy to
electric energy, and vice versa. It is also called a secondary battery.
Refresh Charge (Auxiliary Charge)
Charging of a battery mainly to compensate for its self discharge.
Residual Capacity
Residual capacity of a battery after partial discharge or after storage for long time.
Retainer Type
A method to control flowing electrolyte in a battery with the retainer mat, etc...
Reverse Charge
Charging of a battery with its polarity reversed. Namely, the battery discharges.
Self Discharge
Reduction in capacity of a battery while no current is drawn by the external
circuit. Self discharge depends on temperature: amount of discharge
approximately doubles by each (10°C) rise of ambient temperature.
Voltage
Voltage describes the nominal open circuit voltage (OCV), which varies with
chemistry and number of cells connected in series. Always observe the correct
voltage when connecting to a load or a charger. Do not proceed if the voltage does
not agree.
Valve Regulated Lead-Acid Battery (VRLA-Battery)
Valve regulated lead-acid battery.
Separator
A porous or microporous liquid-absorbent material which is installed between
the battery electrodes for preventing short-circuit, securing the separation of the
electrodes and retaining electrolyte. The separator should be resistant to
oxidation and chemicals; it should excel in electric insulation and
liquid-retention; and it should not disturb diffusion of the electrolyte and ionic
conduction.
Specific Energy Density
Specific energy or gravimetric energy density defines the battery capacity in
weight (Wh/kg); energy density or volumetric energy density is given in size
(Wh/l). A battery can have a high specific energy but poor specific power (load
capability), as is the case in an alkaline battery. Alternatively, a battery may have a
low specific energy but can deliver high specific power, as is possible with the
supercapacitor. Specific energy is synonymous with battery capacity and runtime.
Specific Power
Specific power or gravimetric power density indicates the loading capability, or
the amount of current the battery can provide. Batteries for power tools exhibit
high specific power but have reduced specific energy (capacity). Specific power is
synonymous with low internal resistance and the delivery of power.
Standby Use
General term of constant stand-by battery systems. Batteries are kept charged by
trickle/float method at all times in preparation for unforeseen power disruptions.
Temperature Compensation
Compensation of charge voltage for temperature variation of a cell/battery or in
its vicinity. Qualitatively, charge voltage should be corrected to higher side for low
temperatures and to lower side for high temperatures.
Terminal Voltageat Discharge
The voltage of a battery during discharging.
Thermal Runaway
Such phenomena as an excessively high set-up voltage in constantvoltage charging
of a battery and a very high battery temperature cause charge current to increase,
which then raises the temperature further: this vicious cycle is called thermal
runaway, which may, in the worst case, result in breakage of the battery due to
heat.
Trickle Charge
To charge a battery in the state of disconnection from the load to compensate for
its self discharge.
Trickle Life
The service life of a battery in the trickle use. Usually, the trickle life is the time
expressed in years before the dischargeable time of the battery decreases to a half
of the initial value.
UL
Abbreviation of Underwriters Laboratories Inc. in USA. The UL establishes various
safety standards, and performs official recognition of materials, parts and
products.
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)
Equipment or system which is automatically connected to the load to supply
power if the main power fails.
Vent (ONE WAY VALVE)
A valve on each battery which automatically releases gas from the battery when
internal pressure of the battery exceeds a predetermined value: it prevents
breakage of the battery due to excessive internal pressure caused by the gas
generated by charging or other reasons. The valve also serves to prevent outside
air from entering batteries.
Watts and Volt-Amps (VA)
Power drawn from a battery is expressed in watts (W) or volt-amps (VA). Watt is
the real power that is being metered; VA is the apparent power that determines
the wiring sizing and the circuit breakers. On a purely resistive load, watt and VA
readings are alike; a reactive load such as an inductive motor or florescent light
causes a drop in the power factor (pf) from the ideal one (1) to 0.7 or lower. For
example, a pf of 0.7 has a power efficiency of 70.
Cycle Ageing in Battery
Cycle aging in batteries refers to the degradation of a battery's performance and
capacity over time due to repeated charge and discharge cycles. As batteries
undergo these cycles, several factors contribute to their aging process:
1. Chemical Changes: During each charge and discharge cycle, the chemical
reactions inside the battery can lead to the formation of unwanted
compounds or the degradation of the active materials. For example, in
lithium-ion batteries, the electrolyte and electrode materials can break
down, reducing efficiency and capacity.
2. Physical Changes: Repeated cycling can cause physical changes in the
battery’s internal structure. For instance, in lithium-ion batteries, the
expansion and contraction of the electrode materials can lead to
mechanical stress and cracking, which affects the battery’s ability to hold
charge.
3. Electrode Degradation: Over time, the electrodes in a battery can
deteriorate. In lithium-ion batteries, for example, lithium ions can become
trapped in the electrode materials or form lithium metal deposits, reducing
the battery’s capacity and increasing its internal resistance.
4. Capacity Loss: The overall capacity of the battery decreases with each cycle.
This means that a battery can store less energy after many
charge-discharge cycles, resulting in shorter usage times between charges.
5. Increased Internal Resistance: As batteries age, their internal resistance
often increases. This higher resistance can lead to higher heat generation
during charging and discharging, further accelerating degradation.
6. Electrolyte Degradation: The electrolyte, which facilitates the movement of
ions between the battery's electrodes, can degrade over time. This
degradation can reduce the battery's efficiency and increase the risk of
internal short circuits.
Factors Influencing Cycle Aging
1. Depth of Discharge (DoD): The extent to which a battery is discharged
before being recharged affects its lifespan. Deeper discharges typically
accelerate aging compared to shallower discharges.
2. Charge/Discharge Rates: High charge and discharge rates can increase the
rate of aging. Fast charging and discharging can generate more heat and
stress the battery materials more than slower rates.
3. Temperature: Elevated temperatures can significantly accelerate battery
aging by increasing the rate of chemical reactions and physical changes
within the battery.
4. State of Charge (SoC): Maintaining a battery at high or low charge levels for
extended periods can also affect its longevity. Extreme SoC levels can stress
the battery and lead to faster degradation.
5. Battery Chemistry: Different battery chemistries have varying aging
characteristics. For instance, lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries
generally have a longer cycle life compared to conventional lithium cobalt
oxide (LiCoO2) batteries.
There are two types of battery aging2:
● Calendric aging: The gradual degradation of batteries over time, even if
they are not used.
● Cyclic aging: The “wear and tear” batteries sustain with each charge and
discharge cycle. In other words, every time a battery is used, some
degree of aging occurs.
Calendar aging
in batteries refers to the gradual degradation of a battery’s performance over
time, even if the battery is not being actively used or subjected to
charge/discharge cycles. This type of aging is influenced by factors such as:
1. Temperature: High temperatures accelerate chemical reactions inside the
battery, leading to faster degradation of the battery materials. Conversely,
very low temperatures can also negatively impact battery performance and
lifespan.
2. State of Charge (SOC): Batteries stored at high states of charge tend to age
faster due to increased stress on the battery materials. Similarly, very low
states of charge can also contribute to degradation.
3. Chemistry: Different battery chemistries age at different rates. For
example, lithium-ion batteries might have different aging characteristics
compared to lead-acid or nickel-based batteries.
4. Humidity: Excessive moisture can cause corrosion and other issues, leading
to a reduction in battery lifespan.
5. Charge/Discharge Cycles: Although calendar aging specifically refers to
time-related degradation, the number of charge and discharge cycles the
battery undergoes can also influence its overall longevity.
Minimizing calendar aging involves managing storage conditions to avoid extreme
temperatures, maintaining an optimal state of charge, and controlling humidity.
Understanding and mitigating these factors can help extend the usable life of
batteries.
