MODULE 5

Batteries: Electrical
Characteristics and
Applications
Cell:
• A cell is the basic electrochemical unit that converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
• It consists of a single anode (negative electrode), cathode (positive electrode), and an
electrolyte.
• Cells have a fixed nominal voltage based on their chemistry. For example, a single lithium-
ion cell has a nominal voltage of around 3.7V, while a lead-acid cell is about 2V.
• Examples of individual cells include the AA, AAA, or CR2032 cells commonly found in
household devices.
Battery:
• A battery is made up of one or more cells connected in series or parallel to achieve a
desired voltage and capacity.
• Batteries can be designed to deliver more power (by connecting cells in parallel) or higher
voltage (by connecting cells in series).
• For instance, a 12V car battery consists of six 2V lead-acid cells connected in series (6 × 2V
= 12V).
• Batteries are often rechargeable (secondary batteries) or single-use (primary batteries) and
are used in a range of applications from small electronics to large energy storage systems.
In short:
• A cell is a single electrochemical unit.
• A battery is a combination of cells packaged together to provide greater energy storage or
specific voltage levels.
Introduction to Types of Batteries

Defination-
Batteries are devices that store chemical energy and convert it into electrical
energy through electrochemical reactions. They come in various types, each with
unique characteristics that make them suitable for different applications. The most
common types of batteries include:

• Primary batteries
• Secondary batteries
 TYPES OF BATTERIES
Primary Batteries (Non-rechargeable)
If the stored energy is inherently present in the chemical substances, it is
called a primary cell or a non-rechargeable cell. Accordingly, the battery made
of these cells is called primary battery. The examples of primary cells are
Leclanche cell, zinc-chlorine cell, alkaline-manganese cell and metal air cells
etc.
Once discharged cannot be recharged.
• Alkaline: Often used in household items, they provide good energy density
and are cost-effective.
• Lithium: Known for high energy density and used in critical applications like
medical devices and military applications.
• Zinc carbon,zinc chloride,mercury cell
• Application-wrist watches,remote control,flashlights etc.
Secondary Batteries (Rechargeable):
If, on the other hand, energy is induced in the chemical substances by applying an
external source, it is called a secondary cell or rechargeable cell. A battery made out of
these cells is called a secondary battery or storage battery or rechargeable battery.
Chemical reactions can be reversed by applying some voltages.
• Lead-Acid: Often used in automotive applications, they are durable and cost-effective
but have lower energy density.
• Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd): Known for durability and ability to handle high discharge
rates, often used in power tools.
• Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH): Higher energy density than NiCd, commonly used in
hybrid vehicles and consumer electronics.
• Lithium-Ion (Li-ion): Widely used in mobile devices, laptops, and electric vehicles for
high energy density, lightweight, and rechargeability.
• Lithium-Polymer (LiPo): Known for their thin, flexible packaging, LiPo batteries are
used in compact electronic devices like drones and smartphones.

• Applications-mobile phones,power banks,electrical vehical.

Generalized Battery Parameters
To understand and compare batteries, several key parameters are commonly used:

Let the nominal capacity of battery is expressed in amp-hr and considered as 100%.

1. State of Charge (SoC):

• SoC is the percentage of battery capacity currently available compared to the
maximum capacity or how much battery is filled with ref. to its nominal charge.
• It’s a real-time measurement that changes as the battery charges and discharges,
ranging from 0% (empty) to 100% (full).
• SoC is critical for applications requiring precise energy management, such as electric
vehicles.
2.Depth of Discharge (DoD):

• DoD indicates the percentage of battery capacity that has been

discharged relative to its total capacity or how much battery is
empty with ref. to its nominal charging capacity.
• For example, a battery with a 30% DoD has used 30% of its charge,
leaving 70% available.
• Batteries have specific DoD limits, and excessive DoD can shorten
the lifespan, particularly in lithium-ion and lead-acid batteries.

The soc and doc are dynamic condition of battery to express charge
status at a given time.
3.Energy Density:
• Energy density represents the amount of energy a battery can store
relative to its weight (Wh/kg)-watthour/kg or volume (Wh/L).
• Higher energy density means the battery can store more energy per
unit mass, which is advantageous for portable electronics and electric
vehicles.
• Lithium-ion batteries generally offer higher energy densities compared
to lead-acid or NiMH batteries.
4.Power Density:
• Power density is the amount of power a battery can deliver per unit
mass or volume (W/kg-watt/kg or W/L).
• High power density is essential for applications requiring fast discharge
rates, such as power tools or electric vehicles accelerating quickly.
• Batteries with high power density can discharge energy more quickly,
but often with lower overall energy storage.
5. Battery C-rating:
• The C-rating represents the rate at which a battery can be charged or discharged relative to its
capacity. It indicates the current at which a battery is discharged or charged, expressed as a
multiple of its nominal capacity. A higher C-rate means a faster charge or discharge.
• A 1C rate means the battery can deliver its entire capacity in one hour.
• A 2C rate would deliver its capacity in half an hour.
• A 0.5C rate in two hours.
Example- Let’s say you have a 1000mAh(1 Ah) battery
• Higher C-rate discharges mean the battery will empty faster and might produce more heat, possibly
reducing battery life.
• Lower C-rate discharges are gentler on the battery, increasing lifespan but delivering power more slowly.
C-rate helps in understanding the best usage scenarios for batteries, especially in applications where either
long battery life or quick power is necessary, such as in electric vehicles, drones, or portable electronics.
The ideal C-rating depends on the application and the specific requirements of the battery:
Higher C-Rating:
Pros: Higher C-rated batteries can deliver or accept larger currents quickly. This is crucial for
applications that require bursts of power or quick charging, such as drones, electric vehicles,
or power tools.
Cons: High C-rates can lead to increased heat and faster degradation of the battery if used
frequently. High C-rating batteries also tend to be more expensive and may have slightly
lower overall energy density.
Lower C-Rating:
Pros: Lower C-rated batteries are gentler on the battery cells, helping to maintain a longer
cycle life and higher capacity retention over time. They are typically suitable for applications
with low and steady power demands, like backup power systems or low-power electronics.
Cons: Lower C-rated batteries cannot handle high current demands well, which may result in
overheating or voltage drops if the load is too high.
Which to Choose?
For applications needing high power in a short time (e.g., drones, RC cars, high-powered tools): A
higher C-rating is better. This ensures that the battery can supply the required current safely.
For applications needing a long runtime with low power demands (e.g., backup systems, steady-
use electronics): A lower C-rating is sufficient. Lower C-ratings are often more economical and
increase the lifespan when high power isn’t required.
In short:
Higher C-rating: Good for high power, short-term use.
Lower C-rating: Suitable for low power, long-term, or steady use.
 Battery capacity
Battery capacity refers to the amount of electrical charge a battery can store and supply to a device before it needs
recharging. It is typically measured in ampere-hours (Ah) or milliampere-hours (mAh) for smaller batteries, and in watt-
hours (Wh) for larger batteries like those in electric vehicles or power storage systems.
Key Aspects of Battery Capacity

1.Ampere-Hours (Ah or mAh):

1. This is the most common measure of battery capacity.
2. It represents the amount of charge a battery can deliver over time. For example, a battery with a capacity of 2000
mAh can theoretically deliver 2000 milliamps of current for one hour.
2.Formula:

Factors Affecting Battery Capacity

•Discharge Rate: Higher discharge rates reduce the available capacity due to inefficiencies.
•Battery Age: Over time, battery capacity decreases due to chemical degradation.
 Battery efficiency

Battery efficiency refers to the ratio of the useful energy output of a battery to the total energy input during charging. It is
a measure of how effectively a battery stores and releases energy. Battery efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage.

Round-Trip Efficiency:
•This is the most common measure of battery efficiency.
•It is the ratio of the energy discharged by the battery (output) to the energy required to charge it (input).
Battery selection

Energy
•Capacity (Ah or Wh):
• Choose a battery with sufficient capacity to meet the energy needs of the application.
• Consider peak load and average energy consumption.

Voltage Requirements
• Ensure the battery's nominal voltage matches the application's operating voltage.
• Some systems may require series or parallel configurations to achieve the desired voltage or capacity.

Cycle Life
Expected Usage Duration:
• Batteries with higher cycle life (e.g., Li-ion) are ideal for long-term use.
• Consider depth of discharge (DoD); batteries last longer with shallow cycling.
Charging and Discharging Characteristics
•Charge Time:
• Fast charging capabilities may be necessary for time-sensitive applications.
•Discharge Rate:
• Select batteries that can handle the expected discharge current (C-rate).
•Efficiency:
• High charging/discharging efficiency minimizes energy loss.

Maintenance Requirements
•Low-Maintenance Options:
• Lithium-ion and NiMH require minimal maintenance compared to lead-acid.
•Ease of Replacement:
• Choose designs that facilitate easy replacement or servicing.

Cost
•Initial Cost:
• Consider upfront investment and its feasibility within the project budget.
•Total Cost of Ownership:
• Factor in lifespan, cycle life, maintenance, and replacement costs over time.
Size and Weight
•Ensure the battery fits within the design constraints of the application.
•Lightweight batteries like lithium-ion are preferable for portable applications.

Application-Specific Needs
•Stationary Applications (e.g., solar storage):
• Prioritize long life, cost-efficiency, and low self-discharge.
•Portable Applications (e.g., mobile phones, laptops):
• Opt for lightweight, compact batteries with high energy density.
•High-Power Applications (e.g., electric vehicles):
• High power density and robust thermal management are crucial.

Battery Chemistry
•Select based on application needs:
• Lithium-ion (Li-ion): High energy density, lightweight, and long cycle life.
• Lead-acid: Cost-effective for stationary applications, but heavy and low energy density.
• Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4): Safe, durable, and ideal for high-temperature
environments.
• Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH): Moderate energy density, low maintenance, and good for
consumer electronics.
• Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd): Robust but environmentally hazardous due to cadmium.
Environmental Impact
•Recyclability:
• Lead-acid batteries are highly recyclable, while recycling options for lithium-ion are evolving.
•Toxicity:
• Consider the environmental impact of disposal and chemical leakage.
COMPARISION OF BATTERIES
Specification chart
NOTE- Same as previous question
Asked in May 2024 paper
Note- 1. nominal voltage per cell = 3.7v
2.capacity per Ah = 2.6Ah
3.Li-ion each cell weight = 45g
Note- 1. nominal voltage per cell = 3.2v
2.capacity per Ah = 3.2Ah
3.Li-ion each cell weight = 60g
 Working of battery:

Battery behaves as electric pump it mean battery transport negative charge (electron) from
positive terminal to the negative terminal (high to low) of the battery against the tendency of
electron by doing work on electron.
 Ideal and non-Ideal batteries
• Ideal
• Non Ideal
• Ideal- In case of Ideal bettery it has more internal resistance. It means
work done by the battery will be 100% converted into electrical
energy of the circuit.In this case EMF always equals to terminal
potential difference of the battery.
Non Ideal- In this type of battery have some internal resistance it means work done by the battery will not be
converted 100% in the from of electrical energy. Some amount of energy will be decipiated at internal
resistance of the battery in the form of Heat energy.
 Electrical State of Battery
• Battery in Discharging State- In this case work is done by battery on
Electrons. It means electron will be transported from +ve to –ve
terminal and current will flow from –ve to +ve terminal of the battery.
• In this case EMF> terminal potential Difference.
Battery in Charging State
• In this case of Charging work is done by the battery and current will
flow from +ve to –ve terminal of the battery.
• In this Case terminal potential> EMF
BACK EMF

Back EMF (Electromotive Force) refers to the voltage generated by a device (like a battery or a motor) that
opposes the voltage being applied to it. It’s a natural phenomenon that happens when electricity flows through
a system.
In Batteries:
•What happens? As a battery charges, it starts building up its own internal voltage. This internal voltage resists
the flow of charging current, and that's called back EMF.
•Why does it matter?
• When the battery is nearly full, the back EMF becomes stronger, making it harder for more current to
flow into the battery.
WHAT IS NET CHARGING VOLTAGE?
 QUE 1

• At the beginning of charging, the e.m.f. of the battery is lower (1.9 V per cell), which means the driving
voltage is higher, requiring a higher resistance to limit the current to 10 A.
• As charging progresses, the e.m.f. of each cell increases (to 2.4 V per cell), reducing the net driving
voltage. Therefore, the required resistance decreases to maintain the same charging current.
QUE 2
QUE 3
QUE 4
QUE 5
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTION AND
ANSWERS
QUE 1
QUE 2

(i) A manufacturer of a 10KWh battery recommends a maximum DOD of 80 %. What should be the precaution taken
by the user while connecting the battery to the load.
(ii) Comment on the maximum power that can be drawn from the battery without discharging.
(iii) How the battery parameters DOD and life cycle of the battery are related.
(iv) What is the relation between C-rating, Ah rating and charging or discharging current of battery.
(v) State and explain the five different steps in the battery selection procedure.
QUE 3
A battery has an emf of 20 V and connected to a resistor of 5 Ω. The current in the circuit is 4 A. Calculate
(i) Terminal voltage and the internal resistance of the battery
(ii) Power delivered by the battery and power delivered to the resistor.
QUE 4
QUE 10
Q.5
Q.6