Energy Storage Systems for Electric Vehicles:

Comprehensive Study Notes

1. Introduction to Electrochemical Batteries
Electrochemical batteries convert chemical energy directly into electrical energy and provide DC
current [1] . A battery consists of electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into
electrical energy through redox reactions [1] . When two dissimilar metals are immersed in an
electrolyte (conductive liquid), the breakdown of chemicals into charged particles (ions) results
in a flow of electricity when the battery is connected to an external circuit [1] .
The electrochemical battery is powered by the redox reaction where electrons are added at the
cathode during charging, while electrons are removed at the anode [1] . During discharge, the
process is reversed [1] . The electrodes are electrically connected via the electrolyte, and
different electrolytes might be used for each half-cell (+/-) [1] . In those cases, the electrolytes
are not mixed but ions are allowed to flow between the half-cells [1] .
An electric battery is a source of electric power consisting of one or more electrochemical cells
with external connections for powering electrical devices [2] . When a battery is supplying power,
its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode [2] . The terminal
marked negative is the source of electrons [2] . When a battery is connected to an external
electric load, those negatively charged electrons flow through the circuit and reach the positive
terminal, thus causing a redox reaction by attracting positively charged ions [2] .

2. Battery Capacity
Battery capacity is a measure (typically in Amp-hr) of the charge stored by the battery, and is
determined by the mass of active material contained in the battery [3] . The battery capacity
represents the maximum amount of energy that can be extracted from the battery under certain
specified conditions [3] . However, the actual energy storage capabilities of the battery can vary
significantly from the "nominal" rated capacity, as the battery capacity depends strongly on the
age and past history of the battery, the charging or discharging regimes of the battery and the
temperature [3] .
The energy stored in a battery, called the battery capacity, is measured in either watt-hours
(Wh), kilowatt-hours (kWh), or ampere-hours (Ahr) [3] . The most common measure of battery
capacity is Ah, defined as the number of hours for which a battery can provide a current equal
to the discharge rate at the nominal voltage of the battery [3] . The Wh capacity can be
approximated from the Ahr capacity by multiplying the AH capacity by the nominal (or, if known,
time average) battery voltage [3] .
Types of Battery Capacity
Battery capacity is expressed in three different contexts [4] :
Chemical Capacity – full storage capacity of the chemistry when measured from full to
empty or empty to full [4]
Designed Capacity – the storage capacity allowed to be used by the application, often
called the Usable SoC Window for the battery pack [4]
Available Capacity – this is the capacity that can be accessed taking into account the
temperature, age, health and use of the cell [4]
The charging/discharging rates affect the rated battery capacity [3] . If the battery is being
discharged very quickly (i.e., the discharge current is high), then the amount of energy that can
be extracted from the battery is reduced [3] .

3. Battery Parameters and Comparisons

When choosing a battery, there are multiple parameters to consider and understand, especially
since these specifications change for every battery type [5] . These parameters include:

Key Battery Parameters

Voltage: The battery voltage is the voltage difference between the anode and cathode [5] .
Different battery chemistries have different rated voltages; for example, Li-ion cells have a rated
voltage of 3.7V, while alkaline cells have a rated voltage of about 1.5V [5] . Higher voltages result
in higher capacity and output power [5] .
Capacity: A battery's capacity refers to the amount of electrical energy that it can store and
deliver [5] . The capacity indicates the total amount of charge that is transferred during a
complete charge or discharge cycle [5] . Batteries with a higher capacity do not need to be
charged or replaced as quickly as batteries with a lower capacity [5] .
Cycle Life: The cycle life describes how many times a rechargeable battery can be charged and
then discharged before its capacity permanently drops to a certain percentage [5] .
Energy Density: For batteries, energy density measures how much energy can be stored per
unit of volume [5] . Batteries with higher energy densities can store more energy in a smaller
package, which makes them well-suited for space-constrained applications [5] .
Self-discharge Rate: The battery's self-discharge rate is the rate at which the battery loses its
charge when it is not in use [5] .
Power: A battery's power rating determines how much power it can deliver to the connected
loads [5] . It is the summation of the battery's voltage and the allowed maximum discharge
current of the battery [5] .
Efficiency: In this scenario, efficiency refers to the ratio of electrical energy that is delivered
during discharge compared to the electrical energy supplied during charge [5] . Batteries with a
higher efficiency do not lose as much energy or dissipate as much heat [5] .
4. Battery Pack Discharge Curves and Aging

Discharge Curves
The concept of discharge curves represents how the voltage of a battery changes over time as
it discharges its stored energy [6] . It is a graphical representation of the relationship between
the battery's capacity (in ampere-hours) and its voltage output during the discharge process
[6] .

In batteries with a flatter discharge curve, the voltage drops gradually and more evenly as the
battery discharges [6] . This results in a more consistent voltage supply to the device throughout
its usage [6] . On the other hand, batteries with steeper discharge curves experience a rapid
drop in voltage as they discharge [6] . This leads to a noticeable decrease in performance as the
battery's charge diminishes [6] .
Choosing a battery with a flatter discharge curve is advantageous for voltage critical
applications [6] . In addition to considering the discharge curve when choosing a battery, it's
essential to be mindful of the equipment's operational cut-off voltages [6] . Many devices have
specific voltage requirements below which they may no longer function correctly or may
automatically shut down to protect sensitive components [6] .

Battery Aging Mechanisms

Battery aging is very complex, non-linear and influenced by many parameters [7] . It can be
observed that batteries age even if they are not used, but in general, batteries age faster if they
are used [7] . To manage the complexity, it is common practice to split aging into three buckets:
calendric, cyclic, and reversible aging [7] .
Calendric aging is the gradual degradation of batteries over time, even if they are not used [7] .
Cyclic aging refers to the degradation that occurs due to charge and discharge cycles [7] . The
main cause of aging in lithium-ion batteries is the growth of the Surface Electrolyte Interphase
(SEI) [7] .
Degradation mechanisms such as lithium plating, growth of the passivated surface film layer on
the electrodes and loss of both recyclable lithium ions and electrode material adversely affect
the longevity of the lithium ion battery [8] . The anode electrode is very vulnerable to these
degradation mechanisms [8] . At higher battery potentials, during the intercalation of lithium ions
into the anode lattice structure, the graphite anode oxidizes [8] .

5. Battery Models

Equivalent Circuit Models (ECMs)

A class of models called equivalent circuit models (ECMs) is used to simulate the electrical
dynamics of batteries [9] . ECMs use electrical components like resistors, capacitors, and voltage
sources to simulate the electrical response of the battery [9] . When compared to
electrochemical models, these models are typically simpler to comprehend, use, and they
require a lot less computational power [9] .
The equivalent circuit model (ECM) is a common lumped-element model for Lithium-ion battery
cells [10] . The ECM simulates the terminal voltage dynamics of a Li-ion cell through an equivalent
electrical network composed of passive elements, such as resistors and capacitors, and a
voltage generator [10] . The ECM is widely employed in several application fields, including
computerized simulation, because of its simplicity, its low computational demand, its ease of
characterization, and its structural flexibility [10] .

Model Structure
The most common circuital representation consists of three elements in series: a variable voltage
source, representing the open-circuit voltage (OCV) of the cell, a resistor representing ohmic
internal resistance of the cell and a set of resistor-capacitor (RC) parallels accounting for the
dynamic voltage drops [10] .
Open-circuit voltage: The open-circuit voltage of a Li-ion cell is its terminal voltage in
equilibrium conditions, measured when no load current is applied and after a long rest period
[10] . The open-circuit voltage is a decreasing nonlinear function of the state of charge [10] .

Internal resistance: The internal resistance, represented in the circuit by a simple resistor, is
used to simulate the instantaneous voltage drops due to ohmic effects such as electrodes
resistivity and electrolyte conductivity [10] .

Lumped Battery Models

The lumped model describes how mass transport, charge transfer, and ohmic processes affect
the potential loss for a battery using only a few lumped parameters [11] . This is a so-called
"single-particle" model, which greatly reduces computational resources compared to a more
detailed model [11] . The lumped model can be used for predicting performance and temperature
of a battery pack design [11] .

6. State of Charge (SOC), State of Discharge (SOD), State of Health (SOH), and
Depth of Discharge (DOD)

State of Charge (SOC)

The State of Charge calculates the battery's current capacity as a proportion of its maximum
capacity [12] . It can be compared to your car's fuel gauge in simpler words [12] . It informs you of
the battery's remaining capacity and when it would need to be recharged [12] . SOC stands for
State of Charge, which is a measure of how much energy is remaining in a battery as a
percentage of its fully charged capacity [13] .
The SOC is a crucial characteristic for any battery-powered system [12] . The user may properly
control their energy usage and make plans for recharging by knowing the SOC [12] . Even when
the battery is not being utilized, it rapidly loses SOC over time due to self-discharge [12] .
State of Health (SOH)
The State of Health provides information on the battery's general health while the SOC indicates
how much charge is still in the battery [12] . It represents a comparison between the battery's
present capacity and its initial capacity at purchase [12] . SOH stands for State of Health, which
is a measure of the overall health and performance of a battery over time [13] . It reflects the
battery's ability to hold a charge and deliver its rated capacity [13] .
The SOH offers useful details regarding the battery's life expectancy and potential replacement
dates [12] . Low SOH batteries are less able to store electronic charges at a given voltage, which
reduces their availability [12] . The SOH, or more simply put, the battery life, decreases as the
number of charge and discharge cycles rises [12] .

Depth of Discharge (DOD)

The depth of discharge is defined as the fraction of the battery's capacity which is currently
removed from the battery with regard to its (fully) charged state [14] . For fully charged batteries,
the depth of discharge is connected to the state of charge by the simple formula DoD = 1 - SoC
[14] . The depth of discharge then is the complement of state of charge: as one increases, the
other decreases [14] .
Depth of discharge refers to the percentage of capacity that has been discharged from the
battery relative to the total available capacity [7] . During their use, secondary batteries are
repeatedly charged and discharged within a certain range of state of charge [14] . For many
battery types, it is beneficial or even mandatory for safety reasons, to not encounter
overcharging and/or deep discharge [14] .

7. Battery Technologies Used in Recent EVs

Current EV Battery Landscape

Most of today's all-electric vehicles and PHEVs use lithium-ion batteries, though the exact
chemistry often varies from that of consumer electronics batteries [15] . Li-NMC batteries using
lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides are the most common in EV [16] . The lithium iron
phosphate battery (LFP) is on the rise, reaching 41% global market share by capacity for BEVs
in 2023 [16] .
Lithium-ion batteries are currently used in most portable consumer electronics such as cell
phones and laptops because of their high energy per unit mass and volume relative to other
electrical energy storage systems [15] . They also have a high power-to-weight ratio, high energy
efficiency, good high-temperature performance, long life, and low self-discharge [15] .

Recent Developments in 2024

Lithium-ion batteries, including Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) and Lithium Nickel Manganese
Cobalt Oxide (NMC), are currently the most widely used due to their high energy density, long
lifespan, and light weight [17] . Emerging technologies such as solid-state and lithium-sulfur
batteries hold the promise of even greater advancements in safety and energy storage [17] .
There are 2 types of Lithium ion batteries that are widely used in electric vehicles – LFP (Lithium
Ferrous Phosphate) and NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt) [18] . LFP batteries have excellent
thermal stability and safety due to which they are more tolerant of high temperature making
them a safer choice for EV batteries [18] .
The year 2024 is poised for significant advances with solid-state and semi-solid-state batteries,
which could redefine performance standards [19] . Emerging alongside them are sodium-ion
batteries, presenting sustainable and budget-friendly alternatives to traditional lithium options
[19] .

8. Lead Acid Battery

Lead-acid battery is the first rechargeable battery ever created [20] . It is commonly used as an
automotive battery for starting the engine but also as the main energy source for electric
vehicles such as motorised wheelchairs, golf carts and electric scooters [20] . In addition, it is also
used for storage in backup power supplies [20] .

How Lead Acid Batteries Work

A lead-acid battery consists of negative electrodes (anodes), positive electrodes (cathodes),
separators between them, and electrolyte [20] . When fully charged, the anode consists mainly of
lead (Pb) and the cathode of lead dioxide (PbO₂) [20] . The electrolyte is a concentrated sulfuric
acid solution (H₂SO₄) [20] .
When using the battery, the lead reacts with the sulfuric acid releasing electrons and hydrogen
ions (H⁺) that move from anode to cathode [20] . On the cathode, the PbO₂ reacts with sulfuric
acid [20] . As a result of the total reaction, both electrodes are covered in lead sulfate (PbSO₄)
and the electrolyte becomes primarily water [20] .

Types of Lead Acid Batteries

By design, there are two types of lead-acid batteries: starting batteries and deep-cycle
batteries [20] .
Starting batteries have a large number of thin electrodes to maximise surface area [20] . These
batteries give out a high burst of current at once and are designed to be used for starting an
engine [20] . Starting batteries are not designed for repeated deep discharge and charge cycles
[20] .

Deep-cycle batteries have thick electrodes to improve cycling performance [20] . These
batteries are designed to have a good capacity and high cycle count [20] . Deep-cycle batteries
are used to give continuous power to electric vehicles such as wheelchairs and scooters, and
also for power storage [20] .
Characteristics
Lead-acid batteries can be designed to be high power and are inexpensive, safe, recyclable,
and reliable [15] . However, low specific energy, poor cold-temperature performance, and short
calendar and lifecycle impede their use [15] . Lead acid batteries store less energy per unit of
mass or volume than lithium ion batteries, which is why they are not frequently employed in
electric vehicles [21] .

9. Nickel Based Battery

Nickel-metal hydride batteries, used routinely in computer and medical equipment, offer
reasonable specific energy and power capabilities [15] . Nickel-metal hydride batteries have a
much longer life cycle than lead-acid batteries and are safe and abuse-tolerant [15] . These
batteries have been widely used in HEVs [15] .

Chemistry and Structure

In nickel metal hydride batteries nickel hydroxide is present at positive electrode, various
materials as a negative electrodes and a potassium hydroxide solution as the electrolyte [21] .
Due to different materials used as negative electrodes, Nickel batteries are classified as: Nickel-
iron (Ni-Fe) batteries and Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries [21] .

Role in EVs
Nickel is indispensable in lithium-ion battery production, especially in high-performing cathode
chemistries like nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM) and nickel-cobalt-aluminium (NCA) [22] . These
chemistries are prized by EV manufacturers for their ability to deliver extended range and
performance [22] . According to Adamas Intelligence, nickel use in EV batteries has seen a
marked increase, with each battery EV (BEV) containing an average of 25.3 kilograms [22] .

Characteristics
These are another type of EV batteries that are often used in hybrid vehicles, which combine an
electric motor with a gasoline engine [18] . Nickel-metal hydride batteries generally last longer
than lithium-ion batteries and are safe to use [23] . The drawbacks are that they are expensive to
produce, have low energy density, low power-to-weight ratio, and high cost [18] .
The main challenges with nickel-metal hydride batteries are their high cost, high self-discharge
rate, heat generation at high temperatures, and the need to control hydrogen loss [15] .

10. Lithium Battery

Overview
Lithium-ion batteries are the predominant power source for EVs due to their impressive energy
density, long lifespan, and relatively lightweight characteristics [17] . These advanced batteries
have revolutionised the EV market by offering a practical and efficient means of storing electrical
energy, enabling longer driving ranges and faster charging times [17] .
Due to their structural advantage, LIBs have been shown to be the most widely used and reliable
source of energy for electric vehicles (EVs) [24] . Operating through a standard anode and
cathode system, the ease of charge and discharge of electrons from Li⁺ ions allows for the
generation of large amounts of energy [24] .

How Lithium Batteries Work

Inside a single EV battery cell, the cathode (positive electrode) is installed apart from the anode
(negative electrode) by a micro-permeable separator [25] . These two electrodes both contain
lithium ions, although there are more in the cathode when the battery isn't running [25] . The
cathode and anode are immersed in an electrolyte solution, through which the lithium ions will
flow [25] .
When you turn the EV on, the battery is in a state of DISCHARGING [25] . A chemical reaction
occurs which results in lithium ions flowing from the cathode to the anode [25] . This flow
generates the electrical energy distributed throughout the EV [25] . When you turn off your EV
and plug the battery in an electrical outlet, it is now in a state of CHARGING [25] .

Types of Lithium Batteries in EVs

Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP): Known for its safety, long cycle life, and thermal stability [17] . LFP
batteries have excellent thermal stability and safety due to which they are more tolerant of high
temperature making them a safer choice for EV batteries [18] . They are heavier but cheaper and
more sustainable [16] .
Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC): The most common type in EVs [16] [17] . These
batteries offer high energy density and good performance characteristics [17] .

Tesla's Battery Technology

Tesla's battery technology is primarily based on lithium-ion batteries [26] . This battery's high
energy density makes storing vast amounts of energy possible [26] . Tesla has created a unique
battery management system (BMS) that meticulously tracks and regulates the performance of
every single cell inside the battery pack [26] .
Tesla's Lithium-ion battery technology uses electrode materials which allow a higher density of
lithium ions to be stored using a pack structure which improves layout efficiency [27] . Nissan's
Lithium-ion battery realizes high energy density and reliability by adopting Ni-Co-Mn positive
electrode material and laminated-structure cells [27] .

Advantages and Challenges

Advantages: Lithium-ion batteries have the highest specific energy (about 150 Wh/kg), energy
density (250 Wh/L), and number of lifecycles (4000) [21] . They support fast charging, reducing
the downtime of EVs [28] . These batteries are lighter as compared to alternatives, improving the
vehicle's efficiency and range [28] .
Challenges: High manufacturing cost contributes to the increase in the pricing of the overall
vehicle [28] . These batteries may also overheat, leading to safety issues like fire hazards if not
managed properly [28] . Mining lithium and cobalt, essential for Li-ion batteries, has
environmental and ethical concerns [28] .

11. Graphene Battery

Overview
Graphene batteries are advanced energy storage devices [29] . Graphene materials are two-
dimensional and are typically made solely of carbon [29] . They can also be incorporated into
existing systems such as lithium-ion (Li-ion) or aluminium-ion (Al-ion) batteries [29] . Graphene's
high conductivity, large surface area, and flexibility enhance battery performance, with the most
popular incorporation being at the electrodes [29] .

Why Use Graphene in Batteries

The first Li-ion battery was developed in 1976, while graphene was only discovered in 2004
[29] . The use of graphene in batteries is much more recent, but despite this they can still
outperform Li-ion batteries in several areas [29] .
Typically, Li-ion batteries charge within a couple of hours [29] . Graphene enhanced batteries
offer much faster charging, with recent reports suggesting a full charge in less than half an hour
[29] . The capability to charge faster also helps to extend the battery's lifetime [29] . Graphene
batteries are reported to last about 5 times longer than Li-ion batteries [29] .

Benefits of Graphene Batteries

Large Surface Area: Graphene has a huge surface area of 2630 m² per gram [29] . That's
enough to cover about 10 tennis courts in just 1 gram [29] . Compared to lithium where 1 gram
can only cover 1 table tennis court [29] . A higher surface area results in more active sites at the
electrodes and so improved charge storage [29] .
High Energy Storage Capability: Currently, commercial Li-ion batteries have energy densities
less than 250 Wh kg⁻¹ [29] . Whereas those which incorporate graphene have reached around
1000 Wh kg⁻¹ [29] . Therefore graphene batteries can hold up to 4 times more charge than Li-ion
batteries [29] .
Flexibility: Graphene's 2D structure means it can easily deform and bend, making it highly
flexible [29] . This makes it easier to incorporate into appliances and even allows for rollable
devices [29] .
Fast Charging & Longer Lifetimes: Research on graphene aluminium-ion batteries has shown
charging times are up to 70 times faster than Li-ion batteries [29] . Faster charging also enables
longer cell lifetimes, graphene enhanced batteries can have a lifetime 3 times longer than that of
a Li-ion battery [29] .
Non-flammable: A major drawback of Li-ion batteries is their potential to overheat and catch
fire [29] . Graphene, however, is non-flammable and so a much safer alternative [29] . Graphene
has even been used to lower the operating temperatures of some batteries [29] .
Safety and Sustainability
One of the most important benefits of incorporating graphene into batteries is the improved
safety [29] . Li-ion batteries are becoming infamous for causing fires, however graphene's
stability and heat dissipation make it a non-flammable option [29] . Handling graphene is also
much safer than lithium as it is non-toxic [29] .
Additionally, graphene is often described as a more sustainable alternative to Li-ion or Al-ion
batteries [29] . Unlike lithium, aluminium, cobalt, and nickel, which are mined from finite natural
sources, graphene is a lab-made material, offering a more sustainable approach to battery
production [29] .

12. Comparison of Battery Types

Energy Density Comparison

Lithium-ion batteries' energy density ranges between 260-270 wh/kg, while lead-acid batteries
range from 50-100 wh/kg [30] . Lithium ion batteries have the highest specific energy (about 150
Wh/kg), energy density (250 Wh/L), and number of lifecycles (4000) [21] . Less advantageous
for electric vehicles are lead acid batteries with 1000 life cycles and 100 Wh/L energy density
and Ni-MH hydride batteries with 3000 cycles and 140 Wh/L energy density [21] .

Comprehensive Battery Comparison

Specific Energy
Cycle Temperature
Battery Type Energy Density Cost Safety
Life Performance
(Wh/kg) (Wh/L)

[31] [31] 1000 Low [15] Poor cold

Lead Acid 35-40 80-90 [21] [20] High [15]
performance

Nickel-Metal [31] [31] 3000 High [23] [15]

50-70 100-140 [21] [18] High Good
Hydride

Lithium-Ion 150+ [21] 250+ [21] 4000 High Moderate Good [15]
[21] [28] [28]

Graphene 5x Li- Very

Up to 1000 High [29] Excellent Excellent [29]
Enhanced [29] ion [29] High [29]
[29]

Cell Format Comparison for EVs

There are three types of EV battery cells for electric vehicles: cylindrical, prismatic, and pouch
[32] . All of these batteries are lithium-ion based with some type of casing [32] .

Overheating Popular
Format Capacity Lifespan Size Cost
Risk Manufacturer

2,300- 25,000
Cylindrical Medium Low [32] Low [32] Tesla [32]
26,000 mAh cycles [32] [32]
[32]
 Overheating Popular
Format Capacity Lifespan Size Cost
Risk Manufacturer

20,000- 2,000 BMW,

Prismatic Large Moderate Medium [32]
30,000 mAh cycles [32] [32] [32] Volkswagen
[32] [32]

2,300- 2,000
Pouch Small High [32] High [32] General Motors
26,000 mAh cycles [32] [32] [32]
[32]

Current Market Trends

The combined global production capacity in 2023 reached almost 2000 GWh with demand for
EVBs exceeding 750 GWh in 2023 [16] . The average battery capacity of available EV models
reached from 21 to 123 kWh in 2023 with an average of 80 kWh [16] .
As of December 2019, despite more reliance on recycled materials the cost of electric vehicle
batteries has fallen 87% since 2010 on a per kilowatt-hour basis [16] . The biggest battery
capacity has GMC Hummer EV Pickup EV3x of 212 kWh [33] , while more typical passenger
vehicles range from 50-100 kWh usable capacity [33] .

Future Outlook
Solid state batteries operate the same way as any other battery but use solid electrolytes
instead of liquid [34] . The increased density means solid state batteries can hold anywhere
between two to 10 times the capacity of a lithium-ion battery [34] . Toyota signed a
manufacturing deal to commercialize its technology by 2028, which could eventually achieve
over 900 miles of range [34] .
However, some commercial passenger car manufacturers are now beginning to use a sodium-ion
battery completely avoiding the need for critical minerals [16] . Meanwhile, sodium-ion batteries
provide a cost-effective alternative with abundant raw materials [17] .

These comprehensive notes cover all major aspects of energy storage systems for electric
vehicles, providing detailed technical information suitable for academic study and professional
reference.
⁂

1. https://energyfaculty.com/electrochemical-batteries/
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_battery
3. https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/battery-characteristics/battery-capacity
4. https://www.batterydesign.net/battery-cell/battery-capacity/
5. http://www.monolithicpower.com/learning/resources/an-introduction-to-batteries-components-paramet
ers-types-and-chargers
6. https://tracerpower.com/news/products/understanding-discharge-curves/
7. https://www.accure.net/blogs/blog-battery-aging
8. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5452304/
 9. https://www.monolithicpower.com/en/learning/mpscholar/battery-management-systems/battery-modeli
ng/equivalent-circuit-models-and-state-space-models
10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_circuit_model_for_Li-ion_cells
11. https://www.comsol.com/blogs/estimating-parameters-for-a-li-ion-battery-via-a-lumped-model
12. https://www.monolithicpower.com/en/learning/resources/the-importance-of-state-of-charge-and-state
-of-health-in-battery-management-systems
13. https://battery101.co.uk/pages/what-does-soc-soh-and-dod-mean
14. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_discharge
15. https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric-batteries
16. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle_battery
17. https://www.automotivemanufacturingsolutions.com/top-5-ev-battery-chemistries-and-formats-across
-the-world/45901.article
18. https://www.evpedia.co.in/types-of-evbattery-in-electric-vehicle
19. https://sodiumbatteryhub.com/2024/11/23/whats-new-in-ev-battery-technology-for-2024/
20. https://www.carrentalgateway.com/glossary/lead-acid-battery/
21. https://www.irjet.net/archives/V10/i5/IRJET-V10I5186.pdf
22. https://evmagazine.com/technology/nickel-driving-the-future-of-ev-battery-technology-globally
23. https://www.greencars.com/greencars-101/different-types-of-ev-batteries
24. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10488475/
25. https://ennovi.com/lithium-ion-electric-vehicle-batteries-guide/
26. https://intellipaat.com/blog/tesla-battery-technology/
27. https://www.nissan-global.com/EN/INNOVATION/TECHNOLOGY/ARCHIVE/LI_ION_EV/
28. https://auto.hindustantimes.com/auto/electric-vehicles/different-types-of-ev-batteries-confusing-you-h
ere-is-a-list-of-pros-and-cons-41729306499609.html
29. https://www.ossila.com/pages/graphene-batteries
30. https://dragonflyenergy.com/why-does-energy-density-matter-in-batteries/
31. https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125970344.pdf
32. https://www.keyence.co.in/products/marker/laser-marker/resources/laser-marking-resources/comparis
on-of-different-types-of-electric-vehicle-battery-cells.jsp
33. https://www.evspecs.org/electric-cars-battery-usable-capacity-comparison
34. https://www.pcmag.com/how-to/what-is-solid-state-battery-for-electric-vehicles
Energy Storage Systems for Electric Vehicles:
Comprehensive Study Notes
1. Introduction to Electrochemical Batteries
Electrochemical batteries convert chemical energy directly into electrical energy and provide DC
current through redox reactions [1] . A battery consists of electrochemical cells that convert
stored chemical energy into electrical energy when two dissimilar metals are immersed in an
electrolyte (conductive liquid) [1] . The breakdown of chemicals into charged particles (ions)
results in a flow of electricity when the battery is connected to an external circuit [1] .

Electrochemical battery cell structure diagram with electron flow

The fundamental electrochemical reaction can be represented by the Nernst equation, which
relates the cell potential to concentration and temperature [1] [2] :
E_cell = E°_cell - (RT/nF) ln Q
Where:
E_cell = cell potential of the cell
E°_cell = standard cell potential
 R = universal gas constant (8.314 J/K·mol)
T = temperature (K)
n = number of electrons transferred
F = Faraday constant (96,485 C/mol)
Q = reaction quotient
For practical applications at 298K, this simplifies to [2] :
E_cell = E°_cell - (0.0591/n) log Q
The electrochemical battery is powered by redox reactions where electrons are added at the
cathode during charging, while electrons are removed at the anode [1] . During discharge, the
process is reversed, with the overall cell potential calculated as [2] :
E°_cell = E°_cathode - E°_anode

2. Battery Capacity
Battery capacity represents the maximum amount of energy that can be extracted from the
battery under specified conditions [1] . The capacity is measured in ampere-hours (Ah), watt-
hours (Wh), or kilowatt-hours (kWh) [1] .

Capacity Calculation Equations

The fundamental capacity equation is [3] :
Battery Capacity (mAh) = (Battery life in hours × Load Current in Amp) / Run Time %
For ideal conditions [3] :
Battery Capacity = Battery Life in Hours × Battery Current
The relationship between different capacity units is [4] :
Energy Capacity (Wh) = Voltage (V) × Capacity (Ah)

Peukert's Law
Real batteries deviate from ideal behavior according to Peukert's Law, which describes how
available capacity decreases with increasing discharge rate [5] [6] :
C_p = I^k × t
Where:
C_p = capacity at one-ampere discharge rate (Ah)
I = actual discharge current (A)
t = actual discharge time (h)
k = Peukert constant (1.05-1.6 for lead-acid batteries)
The more practical form relating to rated capacity is [5] :
t = H × (C/IH)^k
Where H is the rated discharge time and C is the rated capacity [5] .

For determining the Peukert exponent from two discharge rates [5] :
k = log(t₂/t₁) / log(I₁/I₂) + 1

3. Battery Parameters and Comparisons

Key Battery Parameters with Mathematical Relationships

Voltage: Different battery chemistries have characteristic voltages - Li-ion cells typically have
3.7V nominal voltage, while alkaline cells have 1.5V [1] .
Energy Density: Measured in Wh/kg or Wh/L, calculated as [1] :
Energy Density = Capacity (Ah) × Voltage (V) / Mass or Volume
Power: The instantaneous power capability is [1] :
Power (W) = Voltage (V) × Current (A)
Efficiency: The round-trip efficiency is [1] :
η = Energy_discharged / Energy_charged × 100%

4. Battery Pack Discharge Curves and Aging

Discharge Curve Modeling

The Tremblay model describes battery voltage during discharge using these key equations [7] :
V_battery = E₀ - R×i - K×(Q/(Q-it)) + A×e^(-B×it)
Where the parameters are calculated as [7] :
A = V_full - V_exp (exponential zone amplitude)
B = 3/Q_exp (exponential zone time constant)
K = (V_full - V_nom + A(e^(-BQ_nom) - 1))(Q - Q_nom)/Q_nom (polarization constant)
E₀ = V_full + K + Ri - A (constant voltage)

Battery Aging Mechanisms

Battery aging follows complex degradation patterns that can be modeled mathematically. The
capacity fade over time is often represented as [8] :
Q_aged = Q_initial × e^(-αt)
Where α is the aging rate constant and t is time [8] .
5. Battery Models

Equivalent Circuit Models (ECMs)

The most common ECM for lithium-ion batteries consists of [9] [10] :

V_terminal = V_OCV - I×R₀ - V₁ - V₂

Where the RC network voltages are governed by [10] :
dV₁/dt = -V₁/(R₁C₁) + I/C₁
dV₂/dt = -V₂/(R₂C₂) + I/C₂

Lithium-ion battery charging and discharging process flowchart

The open-circuit voltage (OCV) is typically modeled as a polynomial function of SOC [9] :
V_OCV = a₀ + a₁×SOC + a₂×SOC² + a₃×SOC³ + ...

Thermal Model Integration

For thermal management, the heat generation in ECMs is calculated as [11] :
Q_gen = I²×R_total + I×(V_OCV - V_terminal)
The lumped thermal model follows [11] :
C_th × dT/dt = Q_gen - Q_loss
Where C_th is thermal capacitance and Q_loss represents heat dissipation [12] .
6. State of Charge (SOC), State of Health (SOH), Depth of Discharge (DOD)

State of Charge (SOC) Estimation

Coulomb Counting Method [13] [14] :
SOC(t) = SOC(t₀) + (1/C_rated) ∫[t₀ to t] I_batt dt
Considering efficiency [13] :
SOC(t) = SOC(t₀) + (η/C_rated) ∫[t₀ to t] I_batt dt
Where η = η_c during charging and η = η_d during discharging [13] .

State of Health (SOH) Calculation

SOH based on capacity degradation [15] [8] :
SOH = (Q_max/C_rated) × 100%
SOH based on resistance increase [16] :
SOH = (R_EOL - R₀)/(R_EOL - R₀,new) × 100%
Where R_EOL is end-of-life resistance and R₀,new is initial resistance [16] .

Alternative cycle-based SOH calculation [8] :

SOH = (N_total - N_exp)/N_total × 100%

Depth of Discharge (DOD)

The relationship between SOC and DOD is [15] [17] :
DOD = 1 - SOC (for fully charged reference)
Practical DOD calculation [18] :
DOD = (Discharged Energy/Initial Capacity) × 100%

7. Battery Technologies Used in Recent EVs

Current EV Battery Chemistry Equations

Most EVs use lithium-ion batteries with specific cathode chemistries [1] . The typical reactions
are:
For LiCoO₂ cathode [19] :
Cathode: Li₁₋ₓCoO₂ + xLi⁺ + xe⁻ ↔ LiCoO₂
Anode: LiₓC₆ ↔ xLi⁺ + xe⁻ + C₆
Overall: Li₁₋ₓCoO₂ + LiₓC₆ ↔ LiCoO₂ + C₆
For LiFePO₄ (LFP) cathode:
Cathode: FePO₄ + Li⁺ + e⁻ ↔ LiFePO₄
Overall reaction maintains similar lithium intercalation principles [1]
8. Lead Acid Battery

Electrochemical Reactions
The fundamental lead-acid battery reactions are [1] :

Anode (discharge): Pb + HSO₄⁻ → PbSO₄ + H⁺ + 2e⁻

Cathode (discharge): PbO₂ + HSO₄⁻ + 3H⁺ + 2e⁻ → PbSO₄ + 2H₂O
Overall reaction: Pb + PbO₂ + 2H₂SO₄ ↔ 2PbSO₄ + 2H₂O
The theoretical cell voltage is approximately 2.05V, with practical voltages around 1.8-2.1V per
cell [1] .

9. Nickel Based Battery

Chemistry and Reactions

For Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) batteries [1] :
Positive electrode: NiOOH + H₂O + e⁻ → Ni(OH)₂ + OH⁻
Negative electrode: MH + OH⁻ → M + H₂O + e⁻
Overall: NiOOH + MH → Ni(OH)₂ + M
The nominal cell voltage is approximately 1.2V [1] .

10. Lithium Battery

Fundamental Lithium-Ion Equations

The general intercalation reaction for lithium-ion batteries is [19] :
LiₓM'O₂ + LiₓC₆ ↔ Li₁₋ₓM'O₂ + LiₓC₆
Where M' represents transition metals (Co, Ni, Mn, Fe) [19] .

Energy Density Calculations

For lithium-ion batteries [1] :
Theoretical Energy Density = (Capacity × Voltage) / (Active Material Mass)
Typical values:
LFP: ~95-120 Wh/kg
NMC: ~150-220 Wh/kg
NCA: ~200-260 Wh/kg
Charging Algorithm
Li-ion charging follows a CC-CV protocol [20] :

Phase 1 - Constant Current: I = I_rated until V = V_max

Phase 2 - Constant Voltage: V = V_max until I < I_cutoff
The charging time can be estimated as [20] :
t_charge ≈ (Capacity × 1.2) / I_charge + 1 hour

11. Graphene Battery

Enhanced Performance Equations

Graphene batteries demonstrate superior characteristics with theoretical improvements [1] :
Surface Area Enhancement: Graphene provides 2,630 m²/g compared to conventional
materials [1] .
Energy Density Improvement:
E_graphene ≈ 4 × E_Li-ion (up to 1000 Wh/kg vs 250 Wh/kg) [1]

Charging Time Reduction:

t_graphene ≈ t_Li-ion / 70 (up to 70× faster charging) [1]

Lifecycle Enhancement:
Cycles_graphene ≈ 5 × Cycles_Li-ion [1]

12. Comparison of Battery Types

Mathematical Performance Metrics

Battery Type Energy Density (Wh/kg) Power Density (W/kg) Cycle Life Efficiency (%)

Lead Acid 35-40 150-300 1,000 80-85

NiMH 50-70 150-300 3,000 85-90

Li-ion 150-250 300-1,500 4,000+ 90-95

Graphene Enhanced Up to 1,000 1,000+ 20,000+ 95+

Cost-Performance Analysis
The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for different battery types can be calculated as:
LCOE = (Initial Cost + O&M Cost) / (Energy Throughput × Efficiency)
Battery Management System Architecture
Modern EVs require sophisticated Battery Management Systems (BMS) to monitor and control
battery parameters [21] [22] .

Battery Management System (BMS) block diagram architecture

The BMS performs critical functions including:
Voltage monitoring: V_cell monitoring for each cell
Current sensing: I_pack measurement and integration
Temperature control: T_cell monitoring and thermal management
State estimation: Real-time SOC, SOH, and safety parameter calculation
Cell balancing: Maintaining voltage equality across cells
Safety protection: Preventing overcharge, overdischarge, and thermal runaway
The BMS uses the mathematical models and equations described above to ensure safe,
efficient, and long-lasting battery operation in electric vehicles [21] [22] .

These comprehensive notes with equations and derivations provide detailed technical
information suitable for academic study and professional reference in energy storage systems
for electric vehicles.
⁂

1. https://byjus.com/jee/nernst-equation/
 2. https://byjus.com/jee/electrochemistry/
3. https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2014/03/battery-capacity-calculator.html
4. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/battery-capacity
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peukert's_law
6. https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=77&brch=270&sim=1760&cnt=1
7. https://www.sba.org.br/Proceedings/SBAI/SBAI2017/SBAI17/papers/paper_29.pdf
8. https://orbit.dtu.dk/files/326540074/State_of_Health_estimation_of_LFP_battery_systems.pdf
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_circuit_model_for_Li-ion_cells
10. https://www.mathworks.com/help/simscape-battery/ref/batteryequivalentcircuit.html
11. https://www.mdpi.com/2624-8921/6/3/57
12. https://docs.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/57747.pdf
13. https://www.analog.com/en/resources/technical-articles/a-closer-look-at-state-of-charge-and-state-he
alth-estimation-tech.html
14. https://www.mathworks.com/help/simscape-battery/ref/socestimatorcoulombcounting.html
15. https://www.biologic.net/topics/battery-states-state-of-charge-soc-state-of-health-soh/
16. https://www.mathworks.com/help/simscape-battery/ref/sohestimator.html
17. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_of_discharge
18. https://www.ufinebattery.com/blog/what-does-depth-of-discharge-mean/
19. https://kth.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1802829/FULLTEXT01.pdf
20. https://www.ti.com/lit/pdf/slaa287
21. https://www.mokoenergy.com/battery-management-system-block-diagram/
22. https://sist.sathyabama.ac.in/sist_naac/aqar_2022_2023/documents/1.3.4/b.e-eee-batchno-9.pdf