Superposition of waves
1. Define
A. Progressive wave – A wave that travels forward through a medium, carrying energy from one place to
another.
B. Stationary wave – A wave that does not move forward but looks like it is standing still, formed by the
interference of two identical waves moving in opposite directions.
C. Node and Antinode –
● Node: Point in a stationary wave where displacement is always zero.
● Antinode: Point in a stationary wave where displacement is maximum.
D. Free vibrations and Forced vibrations –
● Free vibration: When a body vibrates on its own after being disturbed (no external force).
● Forced vibration: When a body is made to vibrate by an external periodic force.
E. Harmonics – Frequencies that are whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency.
F. Overtones – Higher frequencies of vibration above the fundamental frequency.
G. End correction – Small adjustment made in length of an air column in a pipe because the
antinode is not exactly at the pipe’s open end but slightly outside.
H. Beats, Waxing and Waning –
● Beats: Regular rise and fall in sound intensity when two sound waves of slightly different
frequencies interfere.
● Waxing & Waning: The alternately louder and softer sound we hear in beats.
I. Resonance – When a vibrating system is forced to vibrate at its natural frequency, resulting in
maximum amplitude.
2. State
A. Principle of superposition of waves – When two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement is the
algebraic sum of individual displacements.
B. Law of length of vibrating string – Frequency is inversely proportional to the length of the string (f ∝ 1/L).
C. Law of tension of vibrating string – Frequency is directly proportional to the square root of tension (f ∝
√T).
D. Law of linear density of vibrating string – Frequency is inversely proportional to square root of linear
density (f ∝ 1/√μ).
E. Equation of a wave – y = A \sin (kx - \omega t), where A = amplitude, k = wave number, ω = angular
frequency.
3. Characteristics of Progressive waves
● They travel forward carrying energy.
● Amplitude is the same at all points.
● Particles oscillate about their mean position.
● They have crests and troughs (for transverse) or compressions and rarefactions (for longitudinal).
● Energy is transferred but medium particles do not travel.
4. Expression for resultant wave (superposition of 2 waves)
If two waves of same frequency and amplitude combine:
y = 2A \cos \left(\frac{\phi}{2}\right) \sin(\omega t + \frac{\phi}{2})
where \phi is phase difference.
5. Expression for amplitude of resultant wave
Resultant amplitude R = \sqrt{A_1^2 + A_2^2 + 2A_1A_2 \cos \phi}.
6. Stationary wave equation (on string)
When two identical progressive waves move in opposite directions:
y = 2A \sin(kx) \cos(\omega t)
● Shows nodes at x = 0, \frac{\lambda}{2}, \lambda, …
● Antinodes at x = \frac{\lambda}{4}, \frac{3\lambda}{4}, …
7. Conditions for node & antinode
● Node: Displacement = 0 → \sin(kx) = 0.
● Antinode: Displacement = maximum → \sin(kx) = ±1.
8. Properties of stationary waves
● Do not transfer energy.
● Have fixed nodes and antinodes.
● Amplitude varies from zero (at nodes) to maximum (at antinodes).
● Formed by interference of two identical opposite waves.
9. Distinguish
A. Progressive vs Stationary waves
● Progressive → travel forward, energy transfer.
● Stationary → no forward movement, no energy transfer.
B. Free vs Forced vibrations
● Free → natural, no external force.
● Forced → due to external force.
C. Forced vibrations vs Resonance
● Forced → external frequency not equal to natural frequency.
● Resonance → external frequency = natural frequency → maximum amplitude.
10. Harmonics & Overtones
● Harmonics → Multiples of fundamental frequency.
● Overtones → Higher frequencies above fundamental.
11. Odd harmonics in pipe closed at one end
Only odd harmonics (1st, 3rd, 5th …) are present because displacement at closed end = node, open end =
antinode.
12. All harmonics in open pipe
Both ends are open → antinodes at both ends → all harmonics present.
13. End correction
● Closed pipe: Effective length = L + 0.3d
● Open pipe: Effective length = L + 0.6d
(d = diameter of pipe)
14. String harmonics
A stretched string fixed at both ends has nodes at ends → all harmonics present (fundamental, 2nd, 3rd
…).
15. Beat frequency
If two waves of frequencies f_1 and f_2 interfere,
Beat frequency = |f1 – f2|.
