Optical Encoder

An optical encoder is a sensor that converts rotary or linear motion into electrical signals using light.
It is commonly used for position, speed, and direction

Working Principle

1. The encoder disk rotates, allowing light to pass through transparent slots while blocking light
at opaque sections.
2. A photodetector detects the passing light and converts it into a digital signal.
3. The signal processor generates pulses corresponding to the disk’s motion.
4. Direction sensing is achieved by using two sensors (A and B channels) placed 90° out of phase
(quadrature).
5. An optional Z (index) pulse is generated once per revolution for absolute positioning.

Optical Encoder Pins and Ports

An optical encoder usually has 5 to 6 pins, depending on whether it is incremental or absolute.

Pin Function Description

VCC Power Supply Typically, 5V or 12V
GND Ground Common ground connection
A (Channel A) Pulse Output Generates square wave signals
B (Channel B) Pulse Output 90° phase shift from A (used for direction sensing)
Z (Index) Reference Pulse One pulse per revolution (optional)

 If no Z pin is available, the encoder is a two-channel incremental encoder.

Absolute Optical Encoder Pins

Pin Function
VCC Power Supply
GND Ground
Data Lines Binary or Gray code outputs for absolute position
Clock (optional) Used for synchronous communication
Chip Select (optional) Activates encoder in SPI communication

 Absolute encoders provide a unique position value at every angle.

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Optical Encoder Ratings

Parameter Typical Range

Power Supply (VCC) 5V, 12V, 24V
Resolution (Pulses Per Revolution, PPR) 100 – 10,000+ PPR
(Transistor-Transistor Logic) (5V), and HTL (High
Output Voltage
Threshold Logic) (12V/24V)
Maximum Frequency 100 kHz – 2 MHz
Operating Temperature -40°C to 85°C
Shaft Speed 3000 – 10,000 RPM

Sensitivity of an Encoder

Sensitivity is determined by:

 Resolution: Higher PPR/CPR increases sensitivity.


 Detection Technology:
o Optical encoders are more sensitive than magnetic.
o Capacitive encoders have high immunity to dust and dirt.

list of formulas related to encoders, including position, speed calculations.

1. Position Calculation

(a) Angular Position (Rotary Encoders)

𝑁
𝜃= × 360°
𝑃𝑃𝑅
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where:

 𝜃 = Angular position in degrees

 𝑁 = Number of pulses counted
 𝑃𝑃𝑅 = Pulses Per Revolution

(b) Linear Position (Linear Encoders)

𝑁
𝑋= ×𝐷
𝑃𝑃𝑅

where:

 𝑋 = Linear displacement (mm or inches)

 𝐷 = Encoder pitch (distance per pulse, mm or inches)
 𝑁 = Number of pulses counted

2. Speed Calculation

(a) Rotational Speed (RPM)

𝑁 × 60
𝑅𝑃𝑀 =
𝑇 × 𝑃𝑃𝑅

where:

 𝑁 = Number of pulses counted

 𝑇 = Time in seconds
 𝑃 = Pulses Per Revolution

3. Resolution Calculations

(a) Resolution of a Rotary Encoder

360 ∘
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑃𝑃𝑅

where:

 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = Smallest detectable angle per pulse (degrees)

 𝑃𝑃𝑅 = Pulses Per Revolution

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(b) Resolution of a Linear Encoder

𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑃𝑃𝑅

where:

 D = Distance per revolution (mm or inches)

 PPR = Pulses Per Revolution

4. Digital Conversion (Analog to Digital)

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 2𝑛
𝐴𝐷𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

where:

 𝐴𝐷𝐶𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = Digital output value

 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Measured analog voltage
 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = Reference voltage of ADC
 𝑛 = Bit resolution of ADC

For Current Loop (4-20mA) to Voltage Conversion:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝑅𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡

where:

 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Encoder output current (mA)

 𝑅𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 = Shunt resistor value (ohms)

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 Resolver

The resolver is an electromechanical device that gives an analog output by transformer action. Used
for measuring rotational position (angle) and speed. It is commonly used in industrial automation,
aerospace, and motor control systems due to its robustness and reliability in harsh
environments.Resolver-to-digital converters are available and provide a simple way of interfacing
resolvers to digital systems.

Pins
Pin Function Description
Excitation+ (EXC+) Excitation Input AC input signal (Primary winding)
Excitation- (EXC-) Excitation Ground Reference ground for excitation
Sine+ (SIN+) Sine Output Positive output of the sine winding
Sine- (SIN-) Sine Return Negative output of the sine winding
Cosine+ (COS+) Cosine Output Positive output of the cosine winding
Cosine- (COS-) Cosine Return Negative output of the cosine winding

Working Principle of a Resolver

A resolver operates on electromagnetic induction and works similarly to a rotary transformer.

1. Excitation Signal: An AC voltage is applied to the primary winding (rotor), which induces a
signal in the stator winding.
2. Rotational Detection: As the rotor turns, the magnetic coupling between the primary and
secondary windings changes.
3. Sine & Cosine Outputs: The secondary windings generate two output signals (Sine & Cosine)
proportional to the shaft angle:
Parameter Value/Range Description
Excitation 2V to 10V RMS (Typically 4V to AC voltage required to
Voltage 7V RMS) power the resolver
Excitation 2 kHz to 10 kHz (Common: 4 kHz Frequency of the AC
Frequency or 5 kHz) excitation signal
1V to 5V RMS (Depends on Sine and cosine output
Output Voltage
excitation voltage) signals
Operating -55°C to +150°C (Depends on Suitable for extreme
Temperature model) environments
High-precision models have
Accuracy ±5 arc minutes to ±1 degree
lower error

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4. Angle Calculation: The angle  is determined using:

5. Speed Measurement: The rate of change of angle over time provides rotational speed.

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 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) is a type of electromechanical transducer used for
precise measurement of linear displacement. It converts mechanical motion into an electrical signal
using the principle of mutual inductance.

Working of LVDT
1. Primary Winding Excitation: An AC voltage (typically 1–10 kHz) is applied to the primary
coil.
2. Mutual Induction and Secondary Voltage:
a. The ferromagnetic core moves inside the coil assembly, influencing the voltage induced
in the secondary windings.
b. The two secondary coils are connected in a differential configuration.
3. Three Output Conditions:
a. Null Position (Center Position): Both secondary voltages are equal and opposite; the
net output is zero.
b. Core Moves Left: Secondary 1 has a higher voltage than Secondary 2; the output is
positive.
c. Core Moves Right: Secondary 2 has a higher voltage than Secondary 1; the output is
negative.
4. Output Signal Processing: The differential AC output is rectified and converted into a DC
voltage proportional to displacement.

Mathematical Expression or Formulas Involved in LVDT Operation

1. Mutual Inductance Formula

The induced voltage in the secondary windings depends on the mutual inductance between the primary
and secondary coils

𝑀 = 𝑘√𝐿𝑝𝐿𝑠

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  𝑀 = Mutual inductance
 𝑘 = Coupling coefficient
 𝐿𝑝 = Primary coil inductance
 𝐿𝑠 = Secondary coil inductance

2. Voltage Induced in Secondary Windings

The voltage induced in each secondary winding depends on the position of the core.

𝑉𝑠1 = 𝑘1𝑥𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑠2 = 𝑘2𝑥𝑉𝑝

where:

 𝑉𝑠1, 𝑉𝑠2 , = Voltages in secondary windings

 𝑘1, 𝑘2 = Proportionality constants depending on core position
 𝑥 = Core displacement from the center
 𝑉𝑝 = Primary coil excitation voltage

3. Differential Output Voltage

Since the two secondary coils are connected in a differential configuration:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠1 − 𝑉𝑠2

For small displacements, the output voltage is linearly proportional to the displacement:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑆 ⋅ 𝑥

where:

 𝑆 = Sensitivity of LVDT (in mV/V/mm)

 𝑥 = Displacement of the core

4. Sensitivity Calculation

Sensitivity 𝑆 is defined as the output voltage per unit displacement:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑆=
𝑥

Unit: mV/V/mm or V/mm

5. Conversion of AC Output to DC Voltage

To convert the AC output to a DC signal, rectification and filtering are used:

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𝑉𝐷𝐶 =∣ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∣ , where is the rectified voltage used in ADC conversion.

6. Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC) Formula

If an ADC is used to convert the output voltage to a digital value:

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝐷= × 2𝑁
𝑉𝐷𝐶

 𝐷 = Digital output of ADC

 𝑉𝐷𝐶 = Rectified output voltage
 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = Reference voltage of ADC
 𝑁 = Bit resolution of ADC (e.g., 10-bit, 12-bit)

Ratings and Sensitivity of LVDT

Specification Typical Values

Excitation Voltage 1V to 10V RMS
Excitation Frequency 50 Hz to 10 kHz
Output Voltage Range Millivolts to a few volts
Linearity Error ±0.5% or better
Sensitivity 0.5 to 10 mV/V/mm
Operating Temperature -55°C to 150°C

LVDT Pin Configuration

Pin Number Pin Name Function

1 Primary Input (P) AC Excitation applied here
2 Secondary Output 1 (S1) Voltage output from first secondary winding
3 Secondary Output 2 (S2) Voltage output from second secondary winding
4 Common Ground (GND) Reference Ground
5 Shield (Optional) Noise Reduction

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 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)
RVDT is an electromechanical transducer used to measure angular displacement. It operates on the
same principle as an LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) but is designed for rotational
motion.

Working of RVDT

1. Excitation Signal: An AC excitation voltage is applied to the primary coil.

2. Electromagnetic Induction: The rotor's movement alters the flux linkage between the primary
and secondary coils.
3. Differential Output: Two secondary coils are wound in opposite directions, so their induced
voltages are out of phase.
a. If the rotor is at the null position, the induced voltages in both secondary coils are equal,
resulting in zero output.
b. As the rotor moves clockwise, one secondary coil's output increases while the other
decreases.
c. In counterclockwise motion, the opposite happens.
4. Output Signal: The difference in secondary coil voltages is taken as the output, which varies
linearly with angular displacement.

Mathematical Expressions Involved in RVDT Operation

The output voltage of an RVDT (Rotary Variable Differential Transformer) is derived based on
the principles of mutual inductance and electromagnetic induction. The key mathematical relationships
are:

1. Mutual Inductance Relation

The voltage induced in the secondary windings depends on the mutual inductance M, which varies
with the rotor angle𝜃 :

𝑀𝑠 = 𝑀0 + 𝑘𝜃

where:

 𝑀𝑠 = Mutual inductance between the primary and secondary coils

 𝑀0 = Mutual inductance at the null position
 𝑘 = Proportionality constant
 𝜃 = Angular displacement of the rotor

2. Primary Excitation Voltage

An AC excitation voltage is applied to the primary coil:

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 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡)

where:

 𝑉𝑝 = Primary excitation voltage

 𝑉𝑚 = Peak voltage of the AC source
 𝜔 = Angular frequency of the AC signal
 𝑡 = Time

3. Induced Secondary Voltages

The voltages induced in the two secondary coils (𝑉𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑉𝑆2 ) are proportional to the mutual
inductance:

𝑉𝑆1 = 𝑘1 (𝑀0 + 𝑘𝜃 )𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑉𝑆2 = 𝑘2 (𝑀0 − 𝑘𝜃 )𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡)

where:

 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 = Proportionality constants (almost equal)

 𝑀0 ± 𝑘𝜃 S the effect of rotor displacement on mutual inductance

4. Differential Output Voltage

The output voltage is the difference between the two secondary voltages:

𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑆1 − 𝑉𝑆2

𝑉𝑜 = [𝑘1 (𝑀0 + 𝑘𝜃 ) − 𝑘2 (𝑀0 − 𝑘𝜃 )]𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡)

Assuming 𝑘1 ≈ 𝑘2 :

𝑉𝑜 = 2𝑘𝑀0 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡) ⋅ 𝜃

or in RMS form: 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐾𝑠𝜃

where:

 𝐾𝑠 = Sensitivity of the RVDT (output voltage per unit displacement in volts per degree or volts
per radian)
 𝜃 = Angular displacement

5. Sensitivity Formula

The sensitivity of RVDT is defined as the change in output voltage per degree of rotation, given by:

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 𝑉𝑜
𝑆= (𝑉/𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑉/𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛)
𝜃

6. Conversion to Digital Output

If the output is processed using an ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter), the digital value is:

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝐷= × 2𝑁
𝑉𝑜

where:

 𝐷 = Digital output code

 𝑉0 = Output voltage of RVD
 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = Reference voltage of ADC
 𝑁 = Number of ADC bits (e.g., 10-bit, 12-bit, 16-bit)

Ratings of RVDT

Parameter Value
Excitation Voltage 3V to 10V AC (typically 5V or 7V RMS)
Excitation Frequency 400 Hz to 10 kHz
Input Power A few milliwatts
Measurement Range ±30° to ±45° (some extend up to ±60°)
Linearity ±0.5% to ±1% of full scale
Sensitivity 2mV to 5mV per degree

Pins/Ports of RVDT

Pin Type Function

Primary Coil Pins (2) Connect to AC excitation voltage input
Secondary Coil Pins (2 or 3) Provide differential AC output signal
Ground (if applicable) Common ground reference for signal stability

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 Potentiometers as Position Transducers
A potentiometer is a resistive sensor used to measure position (linear or angular) by converting
mechanical displacement into an electrical signal. It is widely used in industrial automation, robotics,
and consumer electronics.

A potentiometer works on the principle of voltage division. When a voltage (𝑉𝑖𝑛 )is applied across its
resistive element, the output voltage (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) is proportional to the position of the sliding contact
(wiper). As the wiper moves, it divides the voltage along the resistive track, providing a variable output.

Equation for Output Voltage:

𝑅1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ×
(𝑅1 + 𝑅2)

Where:

 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = Input voltage

 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Output voltage
 𝑅1, 𝑅2 = Resistance of the two sections of the resistive track

Types of Potentiometers

1. Rotary Potentiometers

A rotary potentiometer is a type of variable resistor where the resistance is adjusted by rotating a knob
or shaft.

 Consists of a circular resistive track.

 A wiper moves along the track when the knob is turned.
 Terminals: Three pins (two fixed ends and one wiper in the middle).

2. Linear (Slide) Potentiometers

A linear potentiometer is a type of variable resistor where the resistance is adjusted by sliding a lever
or knob in a straight line.

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  Consists of a straight resistive track.
 A wiper moves linearly along the track.
 Terminals: Three pins (two fixed ends and one wiper in the middle).

Ratings of Potentiometers

Electrical Ratings

Parameter Value Range

Resistance Value 1Ω to 10MΩ
Power Rating 0.1W to 10W
Typically, 5V to
Voltage Rating
100V
Tolerance ±5% to ±20%

Mechanical Ratings

Parameter Value Range

Lifespan 10,000 to 1,000,000 cycles
Operating Temperature -40°C to +125°C

Ports/Pins of a Potentiometer

Pin Number Name Function

1 Terminal A (Vcc) Connects to supply voltage
2 Wiper (Output) Provides variable voltage output
3 Terminal B (GND) Connects to ground

Sensitivity of Potentiometer

Sensitivity is the change in output voltage per unit displacement.

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 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑆=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

where:

 𝑆 = Sensitivity (V/mm or V/degree)

 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum output voltage
 𝑉 min = Minimum output voltage
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = Maximum wiper movement (linear or angular)

Input and Output Signal Types

Signal
Description
Type
Input A DC voltage (e.g., 5V, 10V, or 24V) is applied across the two terminals of the
Signal potentiometer.
Output
A variable analog voltage is produced, depending on the wiper position.
Signal

Formulas
1. Angular Displacement for Rotary Potentiometers
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜃= × 360 ∘
𝑉𝑖𝑛

where:

 𝜃 = Angular displacement (degrees)

 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Output voltage (V)
 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = Input voltage (V)
 360° represents the full rotation of the potentiometer.

2. Linear Displacement for Linear Potentiometers

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑= × 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑖𝑛

where:

 𝑑 = Linear displacement (mm or cm)

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  𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Output voltage (V)
 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = Input voltage (V)
 𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum displacement (total length of the potentiometer in mm or cm)

How Controllers Read the Potentiometer Output

Most microcontrollers have built-in 10-bit, 12-bit, or higher ADCs to convert the analog signal into
a digital value.

Formula for ADC Conversion:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐷𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = ( ) × (2𝑛 − 1)
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

Where:

 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Output voltage from the potentiometer (wiper pin).

 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = Reference voltage (typically 5V or 3.3V in microcontrollers).
 𝑛 = ADC resolution (e.g., 10-bit for Arduino, 12-bit for STM32).
 (2𝑛 − 1) = Maximum ADC value (e.g., 1023 for 10-bit ADC, 4095 for 12-bit ADC).

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