MODERN INDIAN

NATION: AN
HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE
HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION
• 2500-1500 B.C. → Harappan or Indus Valley Civilization
• 1000-600 B.C. → Vedic Ages (Establishment of Caste System)
• 600-400 B.C. → Rise of Jainism and Budhism
• 400 B.C. – 0 → Mauryan Period
• 0 –1200 A.D. (400 to 600) → Golden Age of Indian Arts and Sciences
• (700 A.D.) 1200 – 1500 A.D. → Muslim Invasions (1498)
• 1500 – 1757 A.D. → The Mughal Empire (1600)
• 1757-1857 → Company Rule
• 1857-1947 A.D. → The British Rule
• 1900-1947 A.D. → Indian Freedom Movement
• 1947 A.D. → Free and Modern India
East Indian Companies in India
• Portuguese East India Company → 1628 to 1633

• Dutch India → 1605 to 1825

• French India → 1668 to 1954

• British India → 1612 to 1947

1.East India Company 1612 to 1757

2.Company Rule in India 1757 to 1858

3.British Rule in India 1858 to 1947

India on the eve of British Rule
• 1707 → Aurangazeb’s death (65 year old Bahadur Shah takes power)

• Problems with Marathas’s, Bundela chiefs, Sikhs,13 crores from treasury spent.

• 1712 → Bahadur Shahs Death, Jahandar Shah (Nobel Zulfiqur Khan)

• 1713 → Farrukh Siyar (nephew) (Saiyid brothers (Hussain Ali and Abdullah Khan helped him)

• 1719 → Farrukh siyar killed by Saiyid brothers then two young princes followed who died in
quick succession.

• 1719 - 1748 → Muhammad Shah (puppets for Saiyid brothers)

• 1739 13th February at Karnal → Nadir Shah defeated Mughals 70 Crores of loot, Abdali
succeded Nadir’s death.

• 1749 → Shah Alam II

India on the eve of British Rule
• India of 18th century failed to make progress socially, economically or culturally at a pace to
keep up with the rest of developed countries and would have saved the country from collapse.

• Some of the reasons for the deteriorating conditions of the people were

1. Increasing revenue demands of the states

2. Oppression by the officials

3. Greed and rapacity of the nobles

4. Zamindars

5. The marches and counter marches of rival armies

6. Depredations of numerous adventurers roaming the land during the first half of 18th century

• India was also a land of contrasts (extreme riches with extreme poverty)
India on the eve of British Rule
• Indian agriculture was technically backward and stagnant.

• Peasants worked hard to overcome the technical backwardness and worked miracles but
seldom reaped the fruits of his labor (true in all empires).

• Even though Indian villages were largely self sufficient (imports were very less) the means of
communications were backward.

• India imported pearls, raw silk, wools, dates, dried fruits and rose water from Persian gulf
region; coffee, gold, drugs and honey from Arabia, tea, sugar, porcelain and silk from China,
gold, musk, and woollen cloth from Tibet, tin from Singapore, spices, perfumes, arrack, sugar
from Indonesian islands, ivory and drugs from Africa, woollen clothes, metals such as copper,
iron, lead and paper from Europe.

• India’s most important article of export was cotton textiles, India also exported raw silk, silk
fabrics, saltpetre, indigo, opium, rice, wheat, sugar, pepper and other spices, precious stones
and drugs.
India on the eve of British Rule
• India’s exports were of high demand and India always exported more than it imported.

• India’s trade was consequently balanced by the import of Gold and Silver.

• Constant warfare and disruption of law and order in many areas during the 18th century
harmed the country’s internal trade and its external trade to some extent.

• Yet at the dawn of 18th century India was one of the main centres of world trade and industry.
Peter the Great of Russia exclaimed: “Bear in mind that the commerce of India is the
commerce of the world and… he who can exclusively command it is the dictator of
Europe”
• Education was not completely neglected in the 18th century but it was in many ways defective,
the knowledge which it imparted was confined to literature, law, religion, philosophy and
logic.

• Elementary education was quite widespread, Hindus → village schools, Muslims → Maulvis in
Maktabs situated in Mosques.

• Girls were seldom given education with the exception of some higher classes of women.
India on the eve of British Rule
• Social and Cultural Life

• Social life and cultural life was marked by stagnation and dependance of past, no uniformity
and people were divided by religion, region, tribe, language and caste.

• Social life of upper classes (a tiny minority) was different from the life and culture of lower
classes.

• Caste was the central feature of social life of Hindus. Apart from the four varnas, Hindus were
divided into several castes (jathi’s).

• The Higher Castes headed by the Brahmins, monopolized all social prestige and privileges,
Caste rules were extremely rigid. ( No inter-caste marriage, inter-caste dining etc.)

• Caste rules were strictly enforced by caste councils, panchayats, caste chiefs through fines,
prayaschitya (penances) or expulsion from caste.

• Caste was a major divisive force in the 18th century.

• Higher office guaranteed a higher social status but it was very difficult.
India on the eve of British Rule
• Even though Muslims enjoyed social equality the shia and sunny nobles were sometimes at
loggerheads on account of their religious differences.

• Also Sharif muslims looked down on the Ajlaf Muslims.

• Family system was mainly patriarchial except Kerala which was Matrilineal.

• Outside Kerala women were subjected to nearly complete male control and were expected to
live as wives and mothers only, However in this role they were treated with much respect and
honor.

• Even during war and anarchy women were seldom molested and were treated with respect.

• European Traveller Abbe J. A. Dubois commented at the beginning of 19th century: “A Hindu
woman can go anywhere alone, even in the most crowded places, and she need never fear the
impertinent looks and jokes of idle loungers…. A house inhabited solely by woman is a
sanctuary which the most shameless libertine would not dream of violating” (But they lacked
individuality)

• Exceptions Ahilya Bai administered Indore from 1766 to 1796 with great success.
• Culturally India showed signs of exhaustion in the 18th century with the more rapid decline
occurring precisely in those branches of Arts which depended on the patronage of Kings,
Nobels and princes.

• Music continued to develop and flourish in the 18th century.

• Poetry in nearly all Indian languages lost its touch with life and became decorative, artificial,
mechanical and traditional, its pessimism reflected the prevailing sense of despair and
cynicism, while its content reflected the impoverishment of the spiritual life od its patrons, the
feudal nobles and kings.

• Urdu poetry flourished and it produced brilliant poets like Mir, Sauda, Nazir and Mirza
Ghalib.

• So was the case with other Indian Languages like Tamil, Malayalam, Assamese, Gujarati,
Punjabi with some noteworthy poets like Thayumanavar (Tamil), Marthanda Varma, Rama
Varma and Kunchan Nambiar (Malayalam), Dayaram (Gujarati), Warris Shah (Punjabi).

• The main weakness of Indian culture lay in the field of science.

• This weakness in the realm of science was to a large extent responsible for the total
subjugation of India by the western countries of the time.

• Struggle for power and wealth, Economic decline, social backwardness and cultural stagnation
had a deep and harmful impact on the morals of a section of the Indian people where the
virtues of loyalty, gratitude and faithfulness to their pledged word tended to disappear in their
single minded pursuit of selfish aims (Nobles and Princes).

• Surprisingly the common people continued to exhibit a high degree of personal integrity and
morality (common vices of theft, drunkenness and violence absent, hospitality and charity
great especially among Hindu’s)
• Friendly relation between Hindu and Muslim people was a healthy feature of life and showed
mutual respect for one another.
Colonial Rule under the East India Company
• The East India Company had very humble beginnings in India and Surat was the centre of
Trade till 1687, the English remained petitioners before the Mughal authorities and had
established factories at Surat, Bharuch, Ahmedabad, Agra and Masulipatnam.
• Sir Thomas Roe had written in 1619 to the English authorities the pattern for future relations
with India, he wrote, “ Assure you, these people are best treated with the sword in one hand
and a Caducen on the other hand” he added that the English should depend ‘upon the same
ground that we began and by which we subsist – fear’
• In 1625 the Company’s authorities at Surat made an attempt to fortify their factory but the
chiefs of the factory were immediately imprisoned. (£ 18,000 fine imposed when piratical
attacks on Mughal shipping by English East India Company’s rivals took place).
• In South the conditions were much more favourable for the English as they did not have to
face a strong Political set up (Government) there.
• 1611 → Masulipatnam factory but soon moved to Madras the lease of which was granted to
them by the local Raja in 1639.
• Here the English built a small fort around their factory called Fort St. George with permission
from the local Raja on condition that half of the customs revenue from their port has to be paid
to him.
• By 17th century they claimed sovereignty over Madras and were ready to fight to defend their claim.
• 1668 → Bombay acquired from Portugal and fortified.
• 1708 → Internal Conflict over and The (Limited) United Company of merchants of England trading
to the East Indies came into existence.
• 1730’s until 1748 the Anglo French conflict reached its peak.
• 1745 → English occupied Pondicherry.
• 1746 → French defeated English and occupied Madras under Governor General Dupleix.
• British asked Nawab of Carnatic to help them and the Nawab agreed but was dealt a crushing
defeat (10,000 soldiers vs 930 soldiers).
• 1748→ War between English and French ended and Madras was restored to English as part of
Peace settlement.
• 1760 → English gained complete control over India defeating French, English General Eyre Coot
defeated Count de Lally the French commander then.
• The war ended in 1763 with the treaty of Paris but cannot be fortified.
• The British conquered Bengal from the then Nawab of Bengal Siraj-ud-daulah by the
Company in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and made Miraj Jafar the Nawab of Bengal.

• The Biggest mistake by Siraj-ud-daulah was that he defeated the Company’s forces on June
20, 1756 but he left the English to escape who then regrouped to attack him.
• Mir Jafar was made the Nawab of Bengal by the English and he had to adhere to all the
demands of the Company and even paid a compensation of Rs. 17,700,000 for the attack on the
company by Nawab.

• Apart from this the British looted the Nawab’s treasury every now and then by various
measures, as days went by Mir Jafar found that the demands of the English were impossible
to meet. He was forced to abdicate his throne on October 1760 and his son-in law Mir Qasim
was made Nawab in his place.
• Mir Qasim wanted no interference from English but he was defeated in a series of Battles in
1763 and fled to Avadh to join forces with Shuja-ud-daulah the Nawab of Avadh and Shah
Alam II the Mughal emperor but were landed a crushing defeat on 22 October 1764.
• 1766 → Against Haidar Ali of Mysore on behalf of the Nizam of Hyderabad but were defeated.

• 1775 → Anglo-Maratha clash, Marathas led by Peshwa Madhav Rao II on behalf of Raghunath
Rao but the Maratha’s were united behind the Peshwa and were strong so the war did not
have any result and in 1782 the Treaty of Salbai by which status quo was restored. (The First
Anglo-Maratha War followed by 20 years of peace).
• 1792 → Tipu Sultan son of Haidar Ali defeated, Lord Cornwallis succeeded through shrewd
diplomacy in isolating him by winning over the Marathas, the Nizam and the rulers of
Travancore and Coorg (1799 → Tipu’s last defeat and death defending Seringapatnam).

• 1798 – 1805 → Lord Wellesley believed it was time to expand the British rule in India by
means of his new subsidiary alliances and outright wars.

• By 1818 the entire Indian Subcontinent excepting Punjab and Sindh had been brought under
the British Rule (either direct British rule or Indian rulers over whom the British excercised
paramount power).

• The British completed the conquest of entire India from 1818 to 1857. (Sindh annexed in 1843,
1848 → Punjab annexed)
• Indian powers were shortened enough to aid the foreigner against another Indian power for
the sake of temporary advantages.

• 1765-1772 → Dual Government set up followed.

• 1772 → Bengal brought directly under the control of British rule.

• 1767 → British parliament passed an act by which company had to pay a tribute of £ 400, 000
per year

• 1773 → Regulating Act of 1773 made changes to the constitution of Court of Directors of the
Company and subjected their action to the supervision of the British Government. In India,
Governor General and his council was to run the government and Supreme Court of Justice at
Calcutta was established.

• Defect was that Governor General was placed under the mercy of the Council and any three
Counsilor’s could join and outvote the Governor General.

• Practical administration of two different provinces of Calcutta and Madras was difficult.
• The defects of the Act were rectified and the Pitt’s India Act was passed in 1784.

• 6 commissioners for the affairs of India, including two cabinet ministers called the Board of
Control.

• In 1786, the Governor General was given the authority to overrule his council in matters of
importance affecting safety, peace or the interests of empire in India.

• But the company’s monopoly carried on until the Charter Act of 1813 when trade was thrown
open to all British subjects. (1833 Charter also – Tea trade and trade monopoly with China
was brought to an end.)
• The three seats of authority as far as India was concerned were the Court of Directors of
Company, the Board of Control representing the British government and the Governor
General. (No Indian associated even in remote capacity)

• The British created a new system of administration in India to serve their purposes, the chief
aim the British was to enable them to exploit India economically to the maximum advantage
of various British interests, ranging from the company to the Lanchashire manufacturers.

• At the same time India was made to bear the full cost of its own conquest as well as of the
foreign rule.
Commercial Policy 1757 - 1857
• Daniel Defoe the famous English writer complained that Indian cloth had “crept into our
houses, our closets and bed chambers; curtains, cushions, chairs and at last beds themselves
were nothing but calicos or Indian stuffs”

• The Industrial revolution in Britain coincided with several other factors resulting in a
complete transformation of Britain’s economy and its economic relations with India. Some of
the important factors were

1. British overseas market had been expanding rapidly creating room for expansion in the
export industries.

2. Sufficient capital was accumulated in the country for investment in new machinery and
factory system.

3. Rapidly growing population met growing need for more and cheaper labour. (Population
doubled from 1740 to 1780)

4. British government was under the influence of commercial and manufacturing interests.
• The Industrial revolution transformed British society in a fundamental manner and is the
foundation of the high standard of living in Britain, Europe, Soviet Union, U.S.A., Australia,
Canada and Japan.

• Britain became increasingly urbanized as a result of Industrial Revolution and so more and
more men began to live in factory towns. In 1750, there were 2 cities with more than 50,000
inhabitants but in 1851, their number was 29.

• Two entirely new classes of society were born – the industrial capitalists and the workers.

• Besides these India was drained of its wealth and developed means of Transport and
communication for their benefit.
British Governors and Governor Generals
• 1757-1760 and 1765-1767 → Robert Clive

• 1772-1785 → Warren Hastings

• 1786-1793 → Lord Cornwallis (Permanent Settlement of Land Revenue)

• 1793-1798 → Sir John Shore (non-intervention)

• 1798-1805 → Lord Wellesley (Subsidiary alliance)

• 1805-1807 → George Barlow

• 1807-1813 → Lord Minto I

• 1813-1823 → Lord Hastings

• 1823-1828 → Lord Amherst

• 1828-1835 → Lord William Bentinck (Committee of Public Instruction)

• 1835-1836 → Sir Charles Metcalfe

British Governor Generals
• 1836-1842 → Lord Auckland

• 1842-1844 → Lord Ellenborough

• 1844-1848 → Lord Harding

• 1848-1856 → Lord Dalhousie (Doctrine of Lapse used initially by court of Directors in 1847)

• 1856 – 1862 → Lord Canning (First Viceroy)

Causes of the Revolt of 1857
POLITICAL FACTORS

• British imperialism had created suspicion in mind of native rulers and the acts of Lord
Dalhousie endangered the existence of native states. (Awadh annexation, royal titles stripped
from rulers of Tanjore and Karnataka).
SOCIO-RELIGIOUS FACTORS

• Religious disabilities Act 1850 (Lex Loci Act) provided right to inherit ancestral property to
Hindu converts to Christianity.

• In Dec 1856 the Govt. of Lord Canning introduced new Enfield rifle in place of Brown Bess,
which was rumoured to be prepared mixing the fat of cow and pig.

MILITARY GRIEVANCES

• Post office Act of 1854 by Dalhousie took away the privilege of free postage enjoyed by sepoys.

• 1856 → General Service Enlistment Act (future recruits to serve anywhere in India).
ECONOMIC GRIEVANCES

• The Land revenue policy of the company also created resentment among the common public.

• The Inam commission appointed in 1852 in Bombay confiscated as much as 20,000 estates.
TIMELINE OF REVOLT OF 1857
• 2nd February 1857 → 19th Native infantry (Berhampur) refused to use newly introduced rifle.

• 29 March 1857 → 34th Native infantry revolted at Barrackpur and was disbanded. Soldiers
under Mangal Pandey shot dead Lt. Baugh and Lt. Gen. Hughson. Mangal Pandey was
hanged on 6 Apr 1857.
• 10 May 1857 → 20th Native infantry and 3rd Cavalry refused to use greased catridges and
revolted at Meerut and the rebels killed English commander Gen. Hewitt and then set out to
capture the imperial city of Delhi. (Beginning of Revolt)

• 12 May 1857 → The rebels entered Delhi on 11 May 1857 and captured Delhi. Lt. Willoughby
was the English commander at Delhi. He set on fire the ammunition depot of Delhi. Simon
Fraser the English Political Agent and several other Englishmen in Delhi were killed.
Bahadur Shah II was declared as Emperor of India (Nominal Leader, Real Leader → General
Bakht Khan). Delhi was recaptured by English on Sep 20 1857.

• 10-30 May 1857 → Revolt spread to Delhi, Bombay and U.P.

• 4 June 1857 → Revolt at Lucknow led by Hazrat Mahal the Begum of Avadh, Lucknow was
recaptured by the English on 21 March 1858. Begum Hazrat Mahal escaped to Nepal.
TIMELINE OF REVOLT OF 1857
• 4th June 1857 → Rani Lakshmi Bai, the queen of late king Gangadhar Rao revolted at Jhansi,
She died fighting in a soldier’s uniform on 17 June 1858.

• 5th June 1857 → The revolt began at Kanpur led by Nana Sahib but most fighting was done by
Tantia Tope, Colin Campbell recaptured Kanpur on 6 December 1858, Nana Sahib refused to
surrender and escaped to Nepal while Tantia Tope joined Rani Lakshmi Bai but was captured
after he was betrayed by his Zamindar friend Man Singh and was hanged on 15 April 1859.

• Another major leader of the Revolt was Kunwar singh the ruined Zamindar of Jagdishpur
(Lion of Bihar died due to wounds of the battle on 9 May 1858, the revolt was then led by
Amar Singh but it was suppressed by Major William Taylor and Gen. Eye in Dec 1858 and the
English authority was re-established.

• Aitchison, a senior British official, bitterly companied, “In this instance we could not play off
the Mohammedans against the Hindus”. In fact the events of 1857 clearly bring out that the
people and politics of India were not communal in medieval times and before 1858.

• Nizam of Hyderabad, the Raja of Jodhpur, Nawab of Bhopal, the rulers of Patiala, Nabha, Jind
and Kashmir and many other ruling chiefs stayed loyal to British and even supported them.
• Governor General Canning later remarked that these rulers and chiefs “acted as the
breakwaters to the storm which would have otherwise swept us in one great wave.”
• The revolt of 1857 gave a severe jolt to the British Administration in India.
• An Act of Parliament in 1858 called the Government of India act transferred the power to
govern from the East Indian Company to the British crown. While authority over India had
previously been wielded by the Directors of the Company and the Board of Control, now this
power was to be exercised by a Secretary of State for India aided by a Council.
• The Secretary of State was a member of the British Cabinet and as such was responsible to
Parliament. Thus the ultimate power over India remained with Parliament.
• The Council of the Secretary of State, known as Indian council, was to advise the Secretary of
State who could overrule its decisions, In financial matters however the councils approval was
essential.
• Most of the members of Indian council were retired British Indian officials.
• Under this act, government was to be carried on as before by the Governor General who was
now given the title of Viceroy or Crown’s personal representative.
• The Viceroy was increasingly reduced to a subordinate status in relation to the British
Government in matters of policy as well as execution of policy.
• In 1870, a submarine cable had been laid through the red sea between England and India and
through which the secretary of state could control even the minutest details of administration.
• No Indian had a voice in the Indian council or the British Cabinet or Parliament.
• On the other hand, British Industrialists, merchants and bankers increased their influence
over the Government of India and now even the pretence of liberalism was gradually given up.
• The Act of 1858 also provided that the Governor General would have an executive council
whose members were to act as heads of different departments and as his official advisors.
• Originally there were five members in this council but by 1918 there were six ordinary
members apart from the Commander-in-Chief who headed the Army department.
• The council discussed all important matters and decided them by majority vote but the Viceroy
had the power to override any important decision of the council.
• The Indian Council Act of 1861 enlarged the Governor General’s(Viceroy) Council for the
purpose of making law in which capacity it was known as the Imperial Legislative Council.
The Governor General (Viceroy) was authorized to add to his executive council six to twelve
members of whom half had to be non-officials who could be Indian or English.
• The Imperial Assembly had no real powers, it was a mere advisory body with no control over
the budget or the actions of administration. The Legislative Council had no control over the
executive. Moreover, no bill passed by it could not become an act without the approval of the
Viceroy (Governor General).

• On top of this the Secretary of State could disallow any of its acts.

• Thus the only important function of the Legislative council was to ditto official measures and
to give them the view that it has been passed by a Legislative body.

• In theory, the non-official Indian members were added to the council to represent Indian
views, since it was believed by many British officials that the revolt of 1857 would not have
occurred if Indian views had been known to the rulers. (Indian members elected by the
Governor General).
• The Government of India remained, as before 1858, an alien despotism.

• Charles Wood, the Secretary of State for India, while moving the Indian Councils Bill of 1861,
said, “All experience teaches us that where a dominant race rules another, the mildest form of
government is a despotism.”