Mathematics Notes: Calculus Basics
1. Introduction to Calculus
Calculus is the branch of mathematics that studies change (differentiation) and
accumulation (integration).
It is widely used in physics, engineering, economics, biology, and computer science.
Two main areas:
1. Differential Calculus – rates of change, slopes of curves.
2. Integral Calculus – areas under curves, accumulation of quantities.
2. Functions and Limits
Function (f(x)): A rule that assigns each input (x) to one output (y). Example:
f(x)=x2f(x) = x^2f(x)=x2.
Limit: The value that a function approaches as the input approaches a point.
limx→af(x)=L\lim_{x \to a} f(x) = Lx→alimf(x)=L
Example:
limx→2(x2)=4\lim_{x \to 2} (x^2) = 4x→2lim(x2)=4
Limits are the foundation of derivatives and integrals.
3. Derivatives
Definition: The derivative measures the instantaneous rate of change of a function.
f′(x)=limh→0f(x+h)−f(x)hf'(x) = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(x+h) - f(x)}{h}f ′(x)=h→0lim hf(x+h)
−f(x)
Geometric meaning: slope of the tangent line at a point.
Basic rules:
1. Power Rule: ddx(xn)=nxn−1\frac{d}{dx}(x^n) = nx^{n-1}dxd(xn)=nxn−1
2. Constant Rule: ddx(c)=0\frac{d}{dx}(c) = 0dxd(c)=0
3. Sum Rule: ddx[f(x)+g(x)]=f′(x)+g′(x)\frac{d}{dx}[f(x)+g(x)] = f'(x)+g'(x)dxd
[f(x)+g(x)]=f′(x)+g′(x)
4. Product Rule: (uv)′=u′v+uv′(uv)' = u'v + uv'(uv)′=u′v+uv′
5. Quotient Rule: (uv)′=u′v−uv′v2\left(\frac{u}{v}\right)' = \frac{u'v - uv'}{v^2}
(vu)′=v2u′v−uv′
6. Chain Rule: (f(g(x)))′=f′(g(x))⋅g′(x)(f(g(x)))' = f'(g(x)) \cdot g'(x)(f(g(x)))′=f′
(g(x))⋅g′(x)
Example:
f(x)=x3⇒f′(x)=3x2f(x) = x^3 \quad \Rightarrow \quad f'(x) = 3x^2f(x)=x3⇒f′(x)=3x2
4. Applications of Derivatives
Finding maxima and minima (optimization problems).
Velocity and acceleration in physics:
o Velocity = derivative of displacement.
o Acceleration = derivative of velocity.
Rate of change in economics (marginal cost, marginal revenue).
5. Integrals
Definition: The integral represents the area under a curve or the accumulation of a
quantity.
Indefinite Integral (antiderivative):
∫f(x) dx=F(x)+C\int f(x)\, dx = F(x) + C∫f(x)dx=F(x)+C
where F′(x)=f(x)F'(x) = f(x)F′(x)=f(x).
Definite Integral:
∫abf(x) dx=F(b)−F(a)\int_a^b f(x)\, dx = F(b) - F(a)∫abf(x)dx=F(b)−F(a)
Basic rules:
1. ∫xndx=xn+1n+1+C,n≠−1\int x^n dx = \frac{x^{n+1}}{n+1} + C, \quad n \neq -
1∫xndx=n+1xn+1+C,n=−1
2. ∫exdx=ex+C\int e^x dx = e^x + C∫exdx=ex+C
3. ∫1xdx=ln∣x∣+C\int \frac{1}{x} dx = \ln|x| + C∫x1dx=ln∣x∣+C
4. ∫cosxdx=sinx+C\int \cos x dx = \sin x + C∫cosxdx=sinx+C
5. ∫sinxdx=−cosx+C\int \sin x dx = -\cos x + C∫sinxdx=−cosx+C
6. Applications of Integrals
Area under a curve:
A=∫abf(x) dxA = \int_a^b f(x)\, dxA=∫abf(x)dx
Volume of solids of revolution:
V=π∫ab[f(x)]2dxV = \pi \int_a^b [f(x)]^2 dxV=π∫ab[f(x)]2dx
Physics: Work done by a variable force, probability distributions, etc.
7. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Connects differentiation and integration:
1. If F(x)F(x)F(x) is the antiderivative of f(x)f(x)f(x), then
ddx∫axf(t) dt=f(x)\frac{d}{dx} \int_a^x f(t)\, dt = f(x)dxd∫axf(t)dt=f(x)
2. ∫abf(x) dx=F(b)−F(a)\int_a^b f(x)\, dx = F(b) - F(a)∫abf(x)dx=F(b)−F(a)
8. Summary
Differentiation = rate of change
Integration = accumulation
Both are inverse operations of each other.
Together, calculus provides powerful tools to solve real-world problems.
