Question 1:

What do you mean by UNO.

Answer:

The United Nations is an international organization. It is aimed at maintaining international

peace and security. It develops friendly relations among nations and achieves international
cooperation. It was set up in 1945 after the devastation brought on by World War II. It aimed
to promote dialogue and resolve conflicts peacefully.

o What is United Nations Organization?

The United Nations (U.N.), headquartered in New York, is a 193-member international

organization. It was established in 1945 in order to avert another world war.

During the Second World War, the leaders of the Allied Governments conducted several
meetings that eventually led to the formation of the United Nations Organization (UNO).

Participating nations signed the Charter. It was founded on October 24, 1945.

The United Nations has six official languages. Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and
Spanish are among them.

o History of the United Nations Organisation

The United Nations Organisation was founded by 51 countries combining after the Second
World War to achieve a common mission of spreading peace and harmony throughout the
globe.

The United Nations was founded on 24 October 1945 in the United States. The United
Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union were the big-three leaders that determined
the functionalities and structure of this organisation.

The Dumbarton Oaks Conference, held at Dumbarton Oaks, a Washington, D.C. estate, from
August 21 to October 7, 1944, was the first important step toward the foundation of the United
Nations. It was a meeting of the diplomatic experts of the big-three powers, which were later
joined by China.

o Structure
The United Nations has a number of specialized agencies. The agencies of United Nations
operate as autonomous entities inside the United Nations. The General Assembly, Security
Council, Economic and Social Council, International Court of Justice, and Secretariat are the
primary components of the United Nations.

o Conclusion

The United Nations Organization is extremely important in restoring global peace. The United
Nations was established with the goal of finding solutions to keep the globe at peace. Since its
inception, it has aided governments in dealing with economic, social, and humanitarian issues,
as well as protecting refugees and promoting the long-term development of the countries.
Purpose of UNO.

Answer:

The United Nations Organization (UNO) is a global organization of autonomous and

independent States, founded on October 24, 1945. The aftermath of World War II led to the
establishment of the United Nations Organization to maintain peace and keep nations away
from war and peace destruction. Around 51 countries of the world got together to maintain
world peace and security. They agreed to form the United Nations by signing a treaty known
as the United Nations Charter. The United Nations is headquartered in New York City and has
added offices in Geneva, Vienna and Hague. Chapter I of the United Nations charter lays down
the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

 Purposes:

Article 1 of the chapter I of the UN Charter talks about the purposes of the United Nations.
These are:

a. The primary purpose of UNO is to maintain peace and security through diplomacy,
Peace-keeping and conflict resolution.
b. The UNO provides assistance to People who are affected by natural disasters, conflict
and Other crises through range of humanitarian Programme.
c. The UNO promotes substainable development through initiatives Such as substainable
Development Goals (SDGs), which aim to eliminate poverty, reduce inequality and
protect the Planet.
d. The UNO works to protect and promote human rights around the world, through various
mechanisms including the universal Declaration of Human Rights and the ICJ.
e. The UNO develops friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle
of equal rights and self-determination of peoples and takes Other appropriate measures
to strengthen universal peace.
Principles of UNO.

Answer:

Article 2 of the chapter I of the UN Charter talks about the principles of the United Nations
Organization. These principles are as follows:

a. sovereign equality: The UN respects the sovereign equality of all its member states.
Regardless of their Size, wealth or power all member states have equal rights and
obligations within the organization.
b. Peaceful settlement of disputes: The UN promotes the peaceful settlement of disputes
between nations through negotiation, mediation and other peaceful means.
c. Collective Security: The UN seeks to prevent and resolve conflicts through Collective
security measures. including the use of peace-keeping forces and sanctions.
d. Non-intervention: The UN respects the sovereignty of member states and does not
interfere in their internal affairs, except in cases where there is a threat to international
peace and security.
e. Human Rights: The UN is committed to Promoting and protecting human rights and
fundamental freedoms for all, without discrimination. Based on race, gender, religion
and sex.
f. Gender Equality: The UN is committed to promoting gender equality and empowering
women and girls. It works to eliminate discrimination and violence against women
against promote equal access to education and health care and ensure women’s full and
equal participation in all spheres of life.
g. Development: The UN works towards promoting sustainable development, eradicating
poverty, ensuring economic and social progress for all. It recognizes the importance of
addressing economic disparities, improving living standards and achieving social
justice

These principles guide the work of the UNO and its various specialized agencies.. programs
and bodies in their efforts to promote global peace, security, development and human rights..
Question 2:

Discuss the composition of International court of Justice.

Answer:

 Article 3, Para 1 states that ICJ shall consist of 15 judges.

 And two of them nationality may not nationality of the same state.
 As per Article 8, Judges of ICJ are to be elected by General Assembly and by Security
Council independently.
 As per Article 4, Judges are elected by both the General Assembly and Security
Council, a list of nominates by national group in permanent court of Arbitration
established by Hague convention of 1907.
 Article 20 of the statute states that judges of ICJ are required to make a solemn
declaration in open court that they will exercise their powers impartially, before the
taking up their duties.
 They should be the person of high moral character.
 Article 16 says that judges of Court may not exercise any Political or Administrative
functions or professional nature.
 Article 2 says that judges required to possess the qualifications which are required in
their respective countries for appointment in the highest judicial offices.
 As per Article 13 judges are elected for a period of 3 years.
 The term of 5 judges elected at the first election expired at the end of 3 years and the
term of another 5 judges expired at the end of 6 years.
 Retired judges are eligible for re-election.
 As per Article 18, members of the Court cannot be dismissed Unless he has ceased to
fulfil The required condition.
 Article 25, States that the quorum of the Court is fixed at 9 judges.
Role of ICJ in present world.

Answer:

ICJ has played very important role in the development of International Law.

o It deals with the major question in the International Law.

o It has delivered judgement on those disputes concerning
i. Land frontires maritime boundaries.
ii. Territorial sovereignty
iii. Non-use of force
iv. Non-interference in the domestic affairs of the state
v. Diplomatic relations.
vi. Guardianship.
o ICJ has given advisory opinion concerning admission to UN membership.
o ICJ contributed toward the development of International law in two directions:
i. It interpreted and 1 applies the rules in such a way so as to resolve the issue
which is affected the life of nations
ii. In case, where no rules existed in International law and where the court faced
new situations, it evolved new principles
Measures for preventing the impartiality of the judges of ICJ.

Answer:

To address the impartiality of judges in the International Court of Justice (ICJ), various
measures have been instituted.

 Measures to Ensure Impartiality of Judges in the ICJ

i. Selection Process
o Election by United Nations Organs: Judges of the ICJ are elected by the United Nations
General Assembly and the Security Council, ensuring a broad representation and
reducing the risk of bias.
o Qualifications and Competence: Candidates must be persons of high moral character,
possessing the qualifications required in their respective countries for appointment to
the highest judicial offices, or jurisconsults of recognized competence in international
law.
ii. Diversity and Representation
o Geographical Representation: The ICJ aims to represent the main forms of civilization
and principal legal systems of the world. This diversity helps mitigate regional biases.
o Limit on National Judges: No two judges can be nationals of the same country, ensuring
a balance of international perspectives.
iii. Independence of Judges
o Non-Renewable Terms: Judges serve for a term of nine years and can be re-elected only
once. This reduces the influence of external pressures related to re-election.
o Prohibition on Holding Other Posts: Judges cannot hold any other post during their
term, preventing conflicts of interest and maintaining their focus on impartial
adjudication.
iv. Ethical Standards and Recusal
o Declaration of Interests: Judges must declare any potential conflicts of interest. This
transparency helps in identifying and addressing biases.
o Recusal Mechanism: Judges are required to recuse themselves from cases where they
have a personal interest or previous involvement. Other parties can also request the
recusal of a judge if there is a legitimate reason to doubt their impartiality.
v. Procedural Safeguards
 o Collegial Decision-Making: Decisions are made collectively by the panel of judges, not
by individuals. This reduces the impact of any single judge’s bias.
o Reasoned Judgments: The ICJ provides detailed, reasoned judgments. The transparency
in their reasoning allows for scrutiny and accountability, discouraging biased decisions.
vi. International Oversight
o Supervision by the United Nations: The ICJ operates under the purview of the UN,
providing an additional layer of oversight. The UN can address concerns about judicial
conduct and integrity.
o Advisory Opinions: The ICJ issues advisory opinions upon request by the UN General
Assembly or Security Council, further integrating it within the broader international
legal framework and ensuring adherence to high standards of impartiality.
vii. Case-Specific Measures
o Ad Hoc Judges: In cases involving countries without a judge on the bench, these
countries can appoint an ad hoc judge to ensure balanced representation.
o Public Hearings: Hearings are generally public, allowing for transparency and public
scrutiny of the judges' conduct and decisions.
 Conclusion

The ICJ employs a comprehensive framework of measures to ensure the impartiality of its
judges. Through a rigorous selection process, diverse representation, stringent ethical
standards, procedural safeguards, and international oversight, the ICJ strives to maintain the
highest standards of judicial impartiality and integrity. These measures are crucial in upholding
the court’s legitimacy and the international community’s trust in its decisions.
Question 3:

Procedure for amendment of UN Charter.

Answer:

Amending the United Nations Charter is a rigorous process due to its foundational role in
international relations. Below is a detailed procedure for amending the Charter.

i. Proposal of Amendments
 Initiation: Amendments to the UN Charter can be proposed by any Member State.
 Submission: Proposals are typically submitted to the Secretary-General, who then
circulates them among all Member States.
ii. Consideration by the General Assembly
 Deliberation: The General Assembly considers the proposed amendments. This
involves debates and discussions among Member States.
 Voting: A two-thirds majority vote in the General Assembly is required to adopt any
proposed amendment.
iii. Ratification by Member States
 Security Council Approval: All permanent members of the Security Council (China,
France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) must agree to the
amendment, exercising their veto power if they choose.
 Member State Ratification: After the Security Council's approval, the amendment
must be ratified by two-thirds of the Member States, including all permanent members
of the Security Council.
iv. Depository and Entry into Force
 Depository: Ratifications are deposited with the Secretary-General.
 Entry into Force: The amendment enters into force once the required number of
ratifications is achieved.
v. Publication and Implementation
 Publication: The Secretary-General publishes the amendment and notifies all Member
States.
 Implementation: Member States are expected to implement the amendment in
accordance with their national laws and international obligations.
vi. Conclusion
The amendment process of the UN Charter ensures that changes reflect a broad consensus
among Member States, maintaining the Charter's integrity and relevance in international law.
Principle of UN Charter.

Answer:

The United Nations Charter establishes several key principles that guide the organization and
its Member States.

i. Sovereign Equality of All Members

o Equality: All Member States have equal rights and obligations under the UN Charter.
o Non-Discrimination: No state, regardless of size or power, has greater privileges than
another in the General Assembly.
ii. Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
o Diplomatic Means: Member States are encouraged to resolve their disputes through
negotiation, mediation, arbitration, or judicial settlement.
o Avoidance of Threats: States must refrain from the threat or use of force against the
territorial integrity or political independence of any state.
iii. Prohibition of Use of Force
o Prohibition: Member States are prohibited from using force except in self-defense or
as authorized by the Security Council.
o Self-Defense: Article 51 of the Charter allows for self-defense if an armed attack occurs
until the Security Council takes measures to maintain international peace and security.
iv. Non-Intervention in Domestic Affairs
o Internal Matters: The UN cannot intervene in matters that are within the domestic
jurisdiction of any state, respecting their sovereignty.
o Exceptions: Exceptions exist if the Security Council determines that intervention is
necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security.
v. Cooperation among Members
o International Cooperation: Member States are to cooperate in solving international
problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character.
o Promotion of Human Rights: Cooperation extends to promoting and encouraging
respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all.
vi. Respect for International Law
o Legal Obligations: States are expected to fulfill their international obligations and
conduct their international relations in accordance with international law.
 o Charter Supremacy: The Charter is the supreme legal document of the UN, and all
treaties and agreements must be consistent with its principles.
vii. Equal Rights and Self-Determination of Peoples
o Self-Determination: The principle of self-determination allows peoples to freely
determine their political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural
development.
o Equal Rights: Promotes equal rights and non-discrimination among peoples and
nations.
 Conclusion

The principles enshrined in the UN Charter form the foundation for international relations and
cooperation, promoting peace, security, and development globally.
Question 4:

Composition of UN Security Council.

Answer:

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United
Nations, charged with ensuring international peace and security, accepting new members to the
United Nations, and approving any changes to its charter. The UNSC is composed of 15
members, divided into two categories: permanent and non-permanent members.

 Permanent Members (P5):

The Security Council has five permanent members, often referred to as the P5:

i. China
ii. France
iii. Russia
iv. United Kingdom
v. United States

These countries were the main Allied powers in World War II and have held permanent seats
since the UNSC's inception in 1945. Each permanent member has the right to veto any
substantive resolution.

 Non-Permanent Members:

In addition to the five permanent members, there are ten non-permanent members, elected by
the General Assembly for two-year terms. The non-permanent members are chosen based on
regional groupings to ensure geographical representation:

i. Africa: 3 seats
ii. Asia-Pacific: 2 seats
iii. Latin America and the Caribbean: 2 seats
iv. Western Europe and Others: 2 seats
v. Eastern Europe: 1 seat

The non-permanent members are elected in staggered terms, with five replaced each year,
ensuring continuity in the council’s operations. Non-permanent members do not have veto
power.
Functions of the Security Council of the UNO.

Answer:

One of the major organs of the United Nations is the Security Council. It is made up of 15
members, Comprising 5 permanent members. And 10 non-permanent The 5 permanent
members include the United State, Britain, France, Russia and china, while the 10 non-
permanent members are elected to serve for two years at a time.

 Functions:

Under the United Nations charter, the functions of the Security Council are discussed below:

a. Maintenance of World Peace: The basic duty of the Security Council is to maintain
world peace and Security. This is done by delving into any circumstances which
threatens the world peace. It ensures that the stronger states do not bully the smaller
ones or acts in the way that intimidate them.
b. Investigate disputes: Another function of the Security Council is to investigate
dangerous situations around the world which can develop into conflicts of international
dimension and create dire consequences for world peace. In other words, anything that
threatens world peace is worth investigating.
c. Peacekeeping operations: The UNSC has the authority to establish peacekeeping.
Operations to regions or experiencing conflict or post-conflict situations. These
operations aim is to promote stability, protect civilians, facilitate the implementation of
peace agreements.
d. Conflict resolution and mediation: The UNSC serves as a forum for conflict
resolution and mediation efforts. It addresses disputes between nations and encourages
peaceful negotiations, dialogue conflicts before they escalate.
e. Authorization of Military Action:
In situations where Peaceful means have been exhausted or are deemed inadequate, the
UNSC can authorize the use of military force to maintain or restore international peace
and Security. These authorizations are granted under Chapter vii of the UN Charter.
f. Sanctions and Enforcement Actions: The UNSC can impose economic sanctions,
arms embargoes, travel bans and other measures against countries which threaten
international peace and security. It can also authorize the use of force, including military
interventions, to enforce its resolutions and protect civilians in conflict Situations.
 g. International Law and Justice: The UNSC promotes international law, including the
UN Charter, by addressing situations where states violate international norms. It
establishes international criminal tribunals International Criminal Tribunal for the
former Yugoslavia [ICTY], International criminal Tribunal for Rwanda [ICTR ] to
prosecute individuals responsible for war crimes, genocide and crimes Against
humanity.
h. Admission of new members: Admission of need members into the United Nations is
done by the General assembly of the UNO. Apart from the Assembly that, it has the
power to suspend existing members. However, all these must be done upon the
recommendation of the Security Council. So, the security council admits new members
on suspends existing ones.
i. Counter-terrorism: The UNSC can take action to combat terrorism and terrorist
organizations around the world.
j. Protection of human rights: The UNSC may take measures to protect human rights
and prevent violations of international humanitarian law in areas of conflict.
k. General Policy Guidance: The Security Council provides general policy guidance to
other UN organs and agencies regarding matters related to international peace and
security. It plays a central role in setting the agenda for global security issue.

So, here in conclusion, it is important to note that the UNSC's functions are subject to the veto
power of its five permanent members (china, France, UK, US, Russia). The consent and
cooperation of these members are often crucial in the decision- making process.
Do you think the UNSC should be restricted in the present day international
politics?

Answer:

 Introduction

The UNSC, as the primary body responsible for maintaining international peace and security,
has significant influence in global affairs. Its decisions can enforce sanctions, authorize military
action, and mandate peacekeeping missions. However, there are arguments for and against
restricting its powers in today's international policies.

o Arguments for Restricting the Security Council

i. Veto Power Abuse:
 Permanent Members' Dominance: The veto power held by the five permanent
members (P5) — the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom —
can lead to biased decisions that reflect their national interests rather than the global
good.
 Deadlock and Inaction: The use of vetoes often results in deadlocks, preventing the
UNSC from addressing critical conflicts effectively, such as in Syria and Ukraine.
ii. Lack of Representation:
 Geopolitical Imbalance: The current composition of the UNSC does not reflect the
contemporary geopolitical realities. Emerging powers and regions like Africa, Latin
America, and South Asia have limited representation.
 Calls for Reform: There are increasing calls for reforms to make the UNSC more
democratic and representative of the broader international community.
iii. Accountability and Transparency:
 Opaque Decision-Making: The UNSC's decision-making processes are often
criticized for being opaque and lacking accountability.
 Need for Checks and Balances: Introducing restrictions could improve accountability
and ensure that decisions are made in a transparent manner, reflecting a wider range of
interests.
o Arguments Against Restricting the Security Council
i. Maintaining Global Stability:
  Centralized Decision-Making: The UNSC's current structure allows for swift
decision-making, which is crucial in times of crisis.
 Preventing Escalation: The ability to enforce binding resolutions helps prevent
conflicts from escalating, maintaining global stability.
ii. Effectiveness in Crisis Management:
 Sanctions and Peacekeeping: The UNSC has been effective in implementing
sanctions and deploying peacekeeping missions to manage and resolve conflicts.
 Coordination and Leadership: It provides a centralized leadership in coordinating
international responses to global threats like terrorism and nuclear proliferation.
iii. Risk of Weakened Authority:
 Undermining Credibility: Restricting the UNSC's powers could undermine its
authority and credibility, leading to a fragmented international order.
 Potential for Anarchy: Without a strong and decisive UNSC, there is a risk of anarchy
and increased unilateral actions by states, undermining collective security efforts.
 Conclusion

While there are valid concerns about the UNSC's current structure and functioning, particularly
regarding the veto power and lack of representation, restricting its powers could have
significant drawbacks. The focus should perhaps be on reforming the UNSC to make it more
representative, accountable, and transparent rather than imposing restrictions that could
weaken its ability to maintain international peace and security.
Question 5:

Importance of UDHR.

Answer:

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a foundational document in the history
of human rights. Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, it
delineates a broad range of fundamental human rights and freedoms to which all individuals
are entitled. Its importance can be analyzed from multiple perspectives:

i. Historical Significance
 Response to Atrocities: The UDHR was formulated in response to the atrocities of
World War II, particularly the Holocaust. It was a ground breaking effort to prevent
such horrors from occurring again and to ensure the protection of human dignity
worldwide.
 Global Consensus: The declaration represents a global consensus on human rights
standards, reflecting the collective aspiration for a world where fundamental freedoms
are respected and protected.
ii. Legal and Normative Impact
 Foundation for International Law: While the UDHR itself is not legally binding, it
has inspired over 70 human rights treaties and numerous international laws. It laid the
groundwork for key international treaties, such as the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and
Cultural Rights (ICESCR).
 National Legislation: Many countries have incorporated principles from the UDHR
into their constitutions and legal frameworks, reinforcing the protection of human rights
at the national level.
iii. Human Rights Advocacy
 Guiding Principles: The UDHR provides a universal standard for human rights that
activists, NGOs, and governments use to advocate for better human rights practices and
to hold violators accountable.
 Empowerment: By articulating clear rights and freedoms, the UDHR empowers
individuals and communities to claim their rights and seek justice against abuses.
iv. Social and Cultural Impact
  Awareness and Education: The UDHR has been instrumental in raising awareness
about human rights issues globally. It is a vital educational tool that promotes
understanding and respect for human rights among diverse populations.
 Cultural Influence: The values enshrined in the UDHR have influenced cultural norms
and societal expectations, contributing to the gradual shift towards greater equality and
non-discrimination.
v. Global Governance and Diplomacy
 Framework for International Relations: The principles of the UDHR are often used
as benchmarks in international relations, guiding diplomatic efforts and international
cooperation on human rights issues.
 Peace and Security: By promoting human rights, the UDHR contributes to global
peace and security. It recognizes that respecting human rights is essential for preventing
conflicts and building stable societies.
vi. Addressing Contemporary Issues
 Adaptability to Modern Challenges: The UDHR remains relevant in addressing
contemporary human rights issues, such as digital privacy, environmental justice, and
the rights of marginalized communities.
 Intersectionality: The declaration acknowledges the interconnectedness of different
rights and freedoms, recognizing that the violation of one right often affects the
enjoyment of others.
vii. Criticism and Evolution
 Universal vs. Cultural Relativism: The UDHR has faced criticism regarding its
applicability across different cultural contexts. Despite this, it has sparked important
discussions on balancing universal human rights standards with cultural diversity.
 Living Document: The UDHR is often seen as a "living document" that continues to
evolve. Its principles are interpreted and reinterpreted in light of new challenges and
societal changes.
viii. Inspirational Role
 Symbol of Hope: The UDHR serves as a symbol of hope and a beacon for oppressed
individuals and communities worldwide. It stands as a testament to humanity's
collective commitment to upholding dignity and justice.
 Moral Authority: Despite its non-binding nature, the UDHR holds significant moral
authority. It sets an aspirational standard that guides global efforts toward a more just
and equitable world.
In summary, the UDHR's importance lies in its comprehensive articulation of human rights, its
influence on international and national legal frameworks, its role in advocacy and education,
and its enduring relevance in addressing contemporary and future human rights challenges. It
remains a cornerstone of global human rights efforts and a powerful tool for promoting and
protecting the dignity and rights of all individuals.
Reasons for the failure of the UN in protecting human rights.

Answer:

The United Nations (UN) has faced numerous challenges in effectively protecting human
rights, leading to criticism and perceptions of failure in various contexts. Here are key reasons
for these shortcomings:

i. Veto Power of Permanent Members: The veto power held by the five permanent
members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and
the United States) often leads to inaction in critical situations. When national interests
conflict with human rights considerations, the veto is frequently used to block
resolutions, preventing effective intervention.
ii. Bureaucratic Inefficiency: The UN's bureaucratic structure can result in slow
decision-making and implementation of actions. This inefficiency hampers timely
responses to emerging human rights crises.
iii. Limited Enforcement Mechanisms: The UN lacks robust enforcement mechanisms
to ensure compliance with human rights standards. Many of its resolutions and
recommendations are non-binding, relying on the voluntary cooperation of member
states.
iv. National Sovereignty: The principle of national sovereignty often impedes the UN’s
ability to intervene in internal affairs, even in cases of severe human rights violations.
States frequently resist external interference, citing sovereignty.
v. Political Interests and Bias: The political interests of powerful member states often
influence the UN's human rights agenda. Selective enforcement and bias can undermine
the credibility and effectiveness of human rights protection efforts.
vi. Lack of Political Will: Effective human rights protection requires strong political will
from member states. In many cases, there is insufficient commitment to prioritize
human rights over other interests, leading to inadequate responses to violations.
vii. Insufficient Funding: The UN's human rights initiatives often suffer from insufficient
funding. Limited financial resources restrict the scope and effectiveness of programs
designed to monitor and address human rights abuses.
viii. Dependence on Member States: The UN relies heavily on contributions from member
states for its operations. This dependence can lead to compromised actions when major
contributors have conflicting interests.
ix. Coordination Issues: The UN’s various agencies and bodies sometimes struggle with
coordination, leading to fragmented and overlapping efforts. This lack of coherence can
dilute the overall impact of human rights initiatives.
x. Field Presence and Accessibility: In many conflict zones and regions with severe
human rights abuses, the UN’s field presence is limited. This restricts the organization’s
ability to monitor situations effectively and provide timely interventions
xi. Cultural Relativism: Differing cultural norms and values can lead to disagreements
about the definition and prioritization of human rights. This cultural relativism can
hinder the establishment of universal human rights standards.
xii. Legal Constraints: International human rights laws often conflict with national laws.
In some cases, domestic legal frameworks do not align with international human rights
standards, making enforcement challenging.
xiii. Complexity of Conflicts: Many human rights abuses occur in the context of complex
conflicts involving multiple parties. Navigating these situations to protect human rights
is inherently difficult and often results in limited success.
xiv. Emerging Challenges: New and emerging challenges, such as cyber threats, climate
change, and migration crises, pose additional difficulties for the UN’s human rights
protection mechanisms. These evolving issues require adaptive strategies that the UN
sometimes struggles to develop quickly.
xv. Lack of Accountability: The UN itself has faced accusations of human rights
violations by its personnel, undermining its moral authority and credibility. Ensuring
accountability within the organization is crucial for maintaining trust.
xvi. Public Perception and Criticism: Failures in high-profile cases, such as the Rwandan
Genocide and the Srebrenica Massacre, have severely damaged the UN’s reputation.
Public perception of ineffectiveness can erode support for its human rights efforts.

In conclusion, the UN's failures in protecting human rights stem from a combination of
structural, political, operational, and socio-cultural challenges. Addressing these issues
requires significant reforms, increased political will, better resource allocation, and enhanced
coordination among member states and UN bodies.
Question 6:

Composition, role and functions of Economic and Social Council of UN.

Answer:

 Composition of ECOSOC

Membership: ECOSOC consists of 54 member states elected by the United Nations General
Assembly. Each member serves a three-year term, with one-third of the seats up for election
each year. The seats are allocated based on geographical representation:

14 from African states

11 from Asian states

6 from Eastern European states

10 from Latin American and Caribbean states

13 from Western European and other states

 Voting Rights: Each member of ECOSOC has one vote, and decisions are generally
made by a majority of those present and voting.
 Leadership: The Council elects a President from among its members for a one-year
term, rotating among the geographical groups to ensure balanced representation.
 Role of ECOSOC
i. Central Forum for Discussion: ECOSOC serves as the primary forum for discussing
international economic, social, and environmental issues. It provides a platform for
dialogue between member states, specialized agencies, and other stakeholders.
ii. Policy Coordination and Review: ECOSOC is tasked with coordinating and
reviewing policies related to economic, social, and environmental issues, ensuring
coherence across various UN agencies and programs.
iii. Implementation of International Goals: ECOSOC plays a critical role in the
implementation of internationally agreed development goals, including the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). It monitors progress and mobilizes resources to achieve
these objectives.
 iv. Promoting Development Cooperation: ECOSOC fosters international cooperation
for development, facilitating partnerships between governments, the private sector, and
civil society organizations.
 Functions of ECOSOC
i. Advisory Functions: ECOSOC provides expert advice to the General Assembly,
Security Council, and other UN bodies on economic, social, and environmental issues.
It makes policy recommendations to improve global standards of living.
ii. Overseeing Specialized Agencies: ECOSOC coordinates the activities of specialized
agencies like the World Health Organization (WHO), International Labour
Organization (ILO), and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), ensuring alignment with UN goals.
iii. Conferences and Forums: ECOSOC organizes high-level conferences and forums to
address pressing global issues. The High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable
Development, held under its auspices, reviews the progress of the SDGs annually.
iv. Functional Commissions: ECOSOC oversees various functional commissions, such
as:
o Commission on the Status of Women (CSW)
o Commission on Population and Development (CPD)
o Commission for Social Development (CSD) These commissions focus on
specific areas and provide expert guidance and recommendations.
o Regional Commissions: ECOSOC works through five regional commissions to
address region-specific issues:
o Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)
o Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)
o Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)
o Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
o Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA).

These commissions promote regional cooperation and integration.

v. Capacity Building and Technical Assistance: ECOSOC supports capacity-building

initiatives in developing countries, providing technical assistance and resources to
enhance their ability to achieve sustainable development.
 vi. Monitoring and Evaluation: ECOSOC monitors the implementation of international
agreements and development goals. It assesses progress through reports and reviews,
identifying areas needing improvement.
vii. Engagement with NGOs: ECOSOC grants consultative status to non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), allowing them to participate in its deliberations and contribute
to policy-making processes. This engagement ensures diverse perspectives are
considered.
viii. Advocacy and Awareness: ECOSOC advocates for policies that promote inclusive
and sustainable development. It raises awareness about critical global issues,
mobilizing political will and public support for international cooperation.

In summary, ECOSOC is a vital component of the UN system, responsible for coordinating

economic, social, and environmental efforts across various agencies and stakeholders. Its
composition ensures broad representation, while its roles and functions encompass policy
coordination, advisory services, capacity building, and advocacy. By addressing global
challenges through a collaborative approach, ECOSOC contributes significantly to the
achievement of international development goals and the promotion of sustainable development
worldwide.
How does it promote functional cooperation in international society?

Answer:

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the United Nations plays a crucial role in
promoting functional cooperation in international society through various mechanisms and
initiatives. Here’s an in-depth look at how ECOSOC facilitates cooperation:

i. Coordination of UN System
o Coordinating UN Agencies: ECOSOC serves as a central platform for coordinating
the work of UN specialized agencies, funds, and programs. This coordination ensures
coherence and avoids duplication in efforts related to economic, social, and
environmental issues.
o Harmonizing Policies: By bringing together member states, international
organizations, and other stakeholders, ECOSOC facilitates policy harmonization across
different sectors. This alignment enhances the effectiveness of global initiatives, such
as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
ii. Policy Formulation and Guidance
o Policy Recommendations: ECOSOC makes policy recommendations to member
states and other UN bodies on economic, social, and environmental issues. These
recommendations are based on expert advice and analysis provided by its functional
commissions and subsidiary bodies.
o High-Level Political Forum (HLPF): Organized under ECOSOC, the HLPF reviews
progress on the SDGs and promotes political commitment to sustainable development
goals. It fosters dialogue among governments, private sector, and civil society,
enhancing cooperation towards shared objectives.
iii. Specialized Commissions and Forums
o Functional Commissions: ECOSOC oversees several functional commissions (e.g.,
Commission on Population and Development, Commission on Social Development)
that focus on specific thematic areas. These commissions facilitate in-depth
discussions, research, and the formulation of policy recommendations.
o Regional Commissions: ECOSOC’s regional commissions (e.g., ESCAP, ECA)
promote regional cooperation and integration by addressing region-specific challenges.
They facilitate exchange of best practices, technical cooperation, and joint initiatives
among member states.
iv. Capacity Building and Technical Assistance
o Technical Assistance: ECOSOC provides technical assistance and capacity-building
support to developing countries. This assistance helps strengthen institutional
frameworks, enhance policy implementation, and build local capacities to achieve
sustainable development goals.
o Knowledge Sharing: Through conferences, workshops, and expert group meetings,
ECOSOC facilitates knowledge sharing and dissemination of best practices. This
exchange of information helps countries adopt innovative approaches and solutions to
common challenges.
v. Partnership and Stakeholder Engagement
o Public-Private Partnerships: ECOSOC promotes partnerships between governments,
private sector entities, and civil society organizations. These partnerships mobilize
resources, expertise, and technology to address development gaps and promote
inclusive growth.
o Engagement with Civil Society: ECOSOC grants consultative status to NGOs and
other civil society organizations, allowing them to participate in its deliberations and
contribute to policy formulation. This inclusiveness ensures diverse perspectives are
considered in decision-making processes.
vi. Monitoring and Accountability
o Monitoring Progress: ECOSOC monitors the implementation of international
agreements and commitments related to economic, social, and environmental issues. It
reviews reports and assessments to track progress, identify challenges, and recommend
corrective actions.
o Accountability Mechanisms: ECOSOC encourages member states to uphold their
commitments and obligations. It advocates for transparent governance, accountability,
and adherence to international standards in areas such as human rights, labor rights, and
environmental protection.
vii. Advocacy and Awareness
o Advocacy for Sustainable Development: ECOSOC advocates for policies that
promote sustainable development, poverty eradication, and inclusive economic growth.
It raises awareness about global challenges and mobilizes political will to address
pressing issues.
o Global Campaigns and Initiatives: ECOSOC supports global campaigns and
initiatives aimed at achieving specific development objectives, such as gender equality,
 education for all, and environmental sustainability. These efforts galvanize
international support and cooperation.
viii. Challenges and Future Directions
o Challenges: Despite its efforts, ECOSOC faces challenges such as resource constraints,
geopolitical tensions, and varying levels of commitment from member states.
Overcoming these challenges requires enhanced cooperation, innovation, and sustained
political will.
o Future Directions: Looking ahead, ECOSOC aims to strengthen its role as a catalyst
for international cooperation. This includes enhancing its effectiveness in addressing
emerging issues, fostering innovation, and promoting inclusive and sustainable
development worldwide.

In conclusion, ECOSOC plays a pivotal role in promoting functional cooperation in

international society by coordinating UN efforts, formulating policies, facilitating partnerships,
providing technical assistance, and advocating for sustainable development. Its efforts
contribute to building a more equitable, prosperous, and resilient global community, aligned
with the goals of the United Nations Charter and the aspirations of member states.
Question 7:

IMF.

ANSWER:

The Bretton Woods Conference in 1944 led to the formation of the International Monetary
Fund (IMF), a significant international financial institution of the United Nations. The IMF
officially began operations on December 27, 1945, with the goal of promoting long-term
growth and prosperity for all 190 of its member nations. The IMF promotes economic policies
that support financial stability and monetary cooperation, which are essential for increasing
productivity and socioeconomic wellbeing.

o The International Monetary Fund (IMF) published the World Economic Outlook
Report (WEO) 2022 in July 2022.
o According to the analysis, global growth would decline from 6.0 percent in 2021 to 3.2
percent in 2022 and 2.7 percent in 2023.
o Except for the global financial crisis and the severe phase of the COVID-19 epidemic,
this is the slowest growth rate since 2001.
o However, Global inflation is expected to increase from 4.7 percent in 2021 to 8.8
percent in 2022, then fall to 6.5 percent in 2023 and 4.1 percent in 2024.
 A Brief Overview of International Monetary Fund (IMF):
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a worldwide financial institution intended
to promote global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, enable international
commerce, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and alleviate
global poverty.
The IMF is a specialized organization of the United Nations. Initially, 44 founding
member nations aimed to establish a framework for international economic
cooperation. Today, its membership includes 190 countries, with staff from 150
different countries.
The IMF’s resources are primarily derived from the funds paid by nations as capital
subscriptions (quotas) when they join the organization.
A quota is given to each IMF member, often based on its relative standing in the global
economy.
The IMF has three key missions, which are as follows:

i. To increase international monetary cooperation.

ii. To promote commercial expansion and economic progress.
iii. To discourage policies that might be detrimental to prosperity.

To execute the above three missions, IMF member nations cooperate closely with each other
and with other international entities.

The IMF offers financial support, including emergency loans, to its members that are
experiencing or may soon face balance-of-payments challenges.

The goal is to assist them in rebuilding their international reserves, stabilizing their currencies,
continuing to pay for imports, and restoring conditions for good economic development while
addressing underlying issues.

Thus, The IMF is seen as a significant player in the global economic system that prioritizes
human welfare, national economic sovereignty, and rebuilding global capital.

 Formation of IMF:
i. The IMF was founded in July 1944 during the United Nations Bretton Woods
Conference. The 44 nations present aimed to create a framework for
international economic cooperation and prevent repeating the competitive
currency devaluations that contributed to the 1930s Great Depression.
ii. The IMF went into operation on December 27, 1945, with 29 member countries
agreeing to be bound by this treaty. It launched its financial activities on 1st
March 1947. The IMF now has 190 member countries.
 Objectives IMF:
The IMF is committed to developing global monetary cooperation, ensuring financial
stability, and enabling and promoting global commerce, employment, and economic
growth. Other significant objectives of the IMF include:
i. To keep track of the global monetary system and economic trends.
ii. To identify risks and recommend measures for growth and financial stability.
iii. To keep the exchange rate stable.
iv. To encourage international monetary cooperation.
v. To promote commerce and economic progress among its member nations.
 vi. To provide economic support to member nations in order to eliminate the
adverse balance of payment.
vii. To reduce imbalances in the quantity and time of trade and commerce.
 Organizational Structure of IMF:

The International Monetary Fund’s (IMF) purpose and governance have changed to reflect
shifts in the world economy, enabling the institution to maintain a key position within the
global financial system. The diagram below depicts the present governance structure of the
IMF.

 Functions of IMF:

To ensure the stability of the international monetary and financial system, the IMF performs
three primary functions:

i. Monitoring: The IMF closely monitors each member country’s economic and financial
developments and undertakes a policy conversation with a member country on a routine
basis to examine its economic conditions with a view to giving policy
recommendations. The IMF also evaluates global and regional developments and
outlooks based on data from individual consultations. On a semi-annual basis, the IMF
publishes such assessments on multilateral surveillance in the World Economic
Outlook and the Global Financial Stability Report.
ii. Financial assistance: Through various loan instruments or “facilities,” the IMF lends
to its member nations experiencing balance-of-payments challenges in order to aid the
adjustment process and restore member countries’ economic development and stability.
An IMF loan is often issued under an “arrangement,” which requires a borrowing nation
to implement the specific policies and procedures stated in a “Letter of Intent” to
remedy its balance of payments crisis. The majority of IMF loans are primarily
supported by quota payments made by its member countries.
iii. Technical assistance: It provides technical assistance to member nations in four areas
to help them develop their capacity to formulate and implement successful policies,
Including Fiscal and monetary policies. System of fiscal policy and management.
Statistics about the economy. Economic and financial legislation.
iv. Other major functions of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) include the:
o To provide a framework for worldwide economic cooperation.
o Exchange Stability.
o To supervise the international fixed exchange rate agreements.
o Maintaining currency demand and supply in balance.
o Provide capital investments for economic growth and infrastructural initiatives.
o The IMF provides emergency assistance to members with urgent balance-of-payments
needs through the Rapid Financing Instrument (RFI).
FAO.

Answer:

FAO full form is the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). It was established in 1945.
FAO is one of the largest specialized agencies within the United Nations System. Its primary
mandate is to enhance nutrition levels and living standards by improving agricultural
productivity and the conditions of rural populations. India holds membership in FAO.

 What is the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)?

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is like a global helper for food. It's a big team
of countries working together to make sure everyone has enough good food to eat. They teach
farmers how to grow more food and keep it healthy. FAO also helps countries share their good
farming ideas.

 Composition of FAO:
The Food and Agriculture Organization has 194 member nations, two associate
members, and the European Union as members.
It operates in more than 130 countries and employs more than 11,500 people.
The FAO is divided into seven sections:
i. The Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department
ii. The Climate, Land, Biodiversity, and Water Department
iii. The Corporate Services Department
iv. The Economic and Social Development Department
v. The Fisheries and Aquaculture Department
vi. The Forestry Department
vii. The Programme Management Department and Technical Cooperation
 Members of FAO:

The FAO consists of 197 member nations. It also includes the European Union.

 Objectives:
i. The Food and Agriculture Organization strives to assist member countries in becoming
self-sufficient and providing adequate food to their indigenous populations while also
producing enough to become active trade partners with other countries.
ii. The FAO promotes public-private partnerships, improves smallholder agriculture, and
creates tools to monitor, mitigate, and warn about food-chain dangers. Industrialized
countries, development banks, and other sources provide funding.
iii. The FAO works within local cultures with local employees to enhance current practices
while leaving local economies intact, focusing on the sorts of food production that are
suited and prevalent for each nation.
 Roles and Functions:
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is a global organisation with the
following functions:
i. To assist governments and development agencies in coordinating initiatives
aimed at developing and improving agriculture, fishery, forestry, and other
water and land resources.
ii. To concentrate on issues concerning food and agriculture all around the world.
iii. To conduct research and offer technical help to a variety of programmes aimed
at increasing agricultural productivity and development.
iv. To carry out training and educational activities, as well as gather and analyze
agricultural data to enhance output and production.
v. To carry out existing and prospective operations of the Organization and
constitutional problems.
 Priority Work Areas:
Here are some of the key priority work areas of the FAO:
i. Food Security: Ensuring access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food for all is
a central objective of the FAO.
ii. Sustainable Agriculture: The FAO promotes sustainable agricultural practices
that optimize productivity while minimizing negative environmental impacts.
iii. Climate Change and Resilience: The FAO recognises the significant impact
of climate change on agriculture and food systems. It thus works to enhance the
resilience of farmers and vulnerable communities.
iv. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: The FAO recognizes the crucial role of
biodiversity and ecosystem services in sustainable food production. It promotes
the conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources for food and
agriculture.
 v. Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture: The FAO plays a key role in
promoting sustainable fisheries and responsible aquaculture practices. It also
works to combat illegal fishing.
vi. Rural Development: The FAO recognizes the importance of rural
development in achieving sustainable food systems and poverty reduction. It
supports inclusive and sustainable rural development strategies.
vii. Nutrition and Food Systems: The FAO works to improve nutrition outcomes
by promoting diversified and nutritious diets. It collaborates with partners to
tackle issues such as food safety and food quality.
viii. Agricultural Innovation and Technology: The FAO promotes the adoption of
innovative agricultural technologies and practices. This is to enhance
productivity, resource efficiency, and sustainability.
ix. Policy Support and Governance: The FAO provides policy advice, technical
help, and capacity development to member countries. This will strengthen their
agricultural and food policies and governance frameworks.
WHO.
Answer:
 What is World Health Organisation?

The World Health Organization (WHO), established in 1948, is a specialized agency of

the United Nations that connects nations, partners and people to promote health, keep the world
safe and serve the vulnerable – so everyone, everywhere can attain the highest level of health.

 Objectives:

Some of the important objectives of WHO are:

i. Lead global efforts to expand universal health coverage.

ii. Focus on the areas of disease prevention, control and elimination, and the promotion of
health and well-being.
iii. Provide leadership on global health issues, set standards for public health, and provide
technical assistance and support to countries.
iv. Collaborate with various partners, including other UN agencies, governments, civil
society organizations, and the private sector.
 Governance structure and functioning:

The governance structure of the WHO is designed to support the implementation of its mandate
and the achievement of its objectives. It includes:

o Membership: WHO currently has 194 member States.

o World Health Assembly (WHA): The highest decision-making body of WHO and
comprises representatives from all member States.
o Secretariat: Responsible for carrying out the policies and programs approved by the
WHA.
o Director-General: Director-General heads the WHA and is supported by a senior
management team.
o Regional Offices: WHO also has six regional offices: Africa, the Americas, Southeast
Asia, Europe, Eastern Mediterranean, and Western Pacific.
Each regional office is responsible for coordinating and supporting WHO's work in
their respective regions.
o Meetings: The WHA meets annually to set policies, approve the budget and elect the
Director-General.
 o Funding mechanism: WHO gets its funding from two main sources:
 Assessed contributions: These are the dues countries pay in order to be a
member of the Organization.
 Voluntary contributions: It is from Member States (in addition to their
assessed contribution) or from other partners like United Nations organizations,
intergovernmental organizations, philanthropic foundations, the private sector
etc.
 What is the role of WHO in global health governance?

Key roles of the World Health Organization (WHO) in global health governance:

i. Setting global health standards and guidelines: To help countries to address health
challenges effectively.
ii. Monitoring and assessing global health trends: To provide updates on emerging
health issues and disease outbreaks to help countries prepare and respond.
iii. Coordinating international health responses: Working with governments, other UN
agencies, and international partners to coordinate global health responses to epidemics,
disasters, and other health emergencies.
iv. Building health systems: The WHO supports countries in strengthening their health
systems, which includes improving access to essential medicines, training health
workers, and developing health infrastructure.
v. Conducting research and development: The WHO conducts and promotes research
into global health issues, with a focus on finding solutions to health challenges affecting
low- and middle-income countries
vi. Advocating for better health policies and funding: The WHO advocates for policies
and funding that prioritize global health issues and ensure that health is a central
component of development agendas.
vii. Providing technical assistance and capacity building: The WHO provides technical
assistance and capacity building to countries, to help them develop and implement
effective health policies and programs.
 How has WHO contributed towards improving global health?

The WHO has significantly contributed to improving global health over the past several
decades. Some of its notable achievements include

o Disease eradication:
  Smallpox: WHO led the global campaign to eradicate smallpox, which was
declared eradicated in 1980.
 Polio: WHO has been a key partner in the Global Polio Eradication Initiative,
which has led to a 99% reduction in polio cases worldwide.
 Control of communicable diseases: Like malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS etc.
through the development and promotion of evidence-based strategies and interventions.
 Health Systems Strengthening: WHO has been actively engaged in strengthening
health systems in low-and middle-income countries.
Example: ‘The WHO India Country Cooperation Strategy 2019–2023: A Time of
Transition’ provides a strategic roadmap for WHO to work with India towards
achieving its health sector goals.
 Essential medicines: It works to ensure access to essential medicines for all by
providing guidance on the selection, procurement, and use of essential medicines.
 Nutrition improvement: It works to improve nutrition for all, by providing guidance
and support to countries in the development of national nutrition policies and programs.
 Emergencies and disasters: It provides technical guidance and support to countries
and coordinates the international response during emergencies and disasters.
Examine: WHO provided timely updates and assistance during the COVID-19
pandemic.
 Mental health: It works to promote mental health and well-being and prevent and treat
mental disorders by providing guidance and support to countries.
WHO’s Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013-2020.
o Digital Health: It helps countries to leverage the power of digital technologies to
improve health outcomes.
 What are the areas of work under India-WHO partnership?

India and WHO have a cooperative partnership in several areas of public health. Some of these
areas are:

o Disease Control and Prevention: Collaboration on various disease control and

prevention programs like the National program for the control of tuberculosis, the
National Strategic Plan for Elimination of Malaria (2017-2022), and the National
program for the control of HIV/AIDS.
 WHO collaborated with the Jammu and Kashmir in 2021 to identify challenges that
have led to vaccine hesitancy (COVID-19) and conduct special vaccination drives to
increase vaccination coverage
o Maternal and Child Health: Reducing maternal and child mortality by providing
technical assistance and support.
Example: Supporting the implementation of the Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva
Abhiyan that aims to provide free and quality ante-natal care to pregnant women across
India.
o Non-Communicable Diseases: WHO is working with India to prevent and control
non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease etc.
o Traditional Medicine: WHO is working with India to promote the safe and effective
use of traditional medicine.
Example: WHO signed an agreement with the government of India to establish WHO
Global Centre for Traditional Medicine in Jamnagar, Gujarat.
o Health Research: WHO and India have a strong partnership in the area of health
research.
o Digital Health: WHO is working with India to leverage the power of digital
technologies to improve health outcomes.
Example: To develop the National Digital Health Blueprint, which aims to create a
digital health ecosystem to improve access to healthcare services in India.
 Issues and challenges faced by WHO:

The WHO faces a number of difficulties in its working and organizational structure. Some of
these challenges include:

i. Limited funding: WHO relies heavily on voluntary funding from member states and
other donors, which is unpredictable and insufficient to fully fund its programs.
ii. Emergence of new diseases: The WHO must constantly monitor and respond to new
and emerging diseases, such as COVID-19, which can strain its resources and
capabilities.
iii. Limited access to healthcare: Many countries still lack adequate healthcare
infrastructure and resources, which makes it difficult for WHO to improve health
outcomes in these areas.
 iv. Climate Change and health: Climate change is increasingly affecting health, and
WHO faces the challenge of dealing with the health consequences of extreme weather
events and the health effects of air and water pollution.
 Criticisms faced by WHO:
i. Inefficiency and bureaucracy: WHO is slow to respond to health crises due to its
bureaucratic structure and lack of resources.
Example: During the 2014-16 Ebola outbreak in West Africa, the WHO was criticized
for delayed response and underestimation of the outbreak.
ii. Political interference: The alleged China’s influence over WHO came to limelight
during the COVID-19 pandemic.
iii. Lack of transparency: The WHO has been criticized for lack of transparency in its
decision-making and operations.
Example: WHO handling of the COVID-19 pandemic and for not being forthcoming
about the origins of the virus.
iv. Inadequate representation: WHO does not adequately represent the interests of all
member states, particularly developing countries.
 What steps can be taken to make WHO more effective?

The WHO is a vital institution that plays a crucial role in addressing global health challenges.
Some of the steps that can be taken to make WHO more effective are:

i. Increased funding: WHO's budget needs to be increased to ensure it has the necessary
resources to address global health challenges effectively.
There is a need to ensure that extra budgetary or voluntary contributions are
unearmarked to ensure that the WHO has necessary flexibility in its usage.
ii. Ensuring transparency of funding mechanism and accountability
framework: Member States should be involved in discussions on budget
implementation and spending.
Establish transparency with respect to data reporting and disbursement of funds for
increased accountability.
iii. Strengthening leadership and governance: To enhance transparency, accountability,
and effectiveness. This could include increasing the representation of low- and middle-
income countries in decision-making bodies.
iv. Improved focus on prevention and preparedness: WHO needs to prioritize
prevention and preparedness for outbreaks and pandemics, rather than simply reacting
to crises when they occur.
v. This could include Strengthening the Public Health Emergency of International
Concern (PHEIC) declaration process.
UNESCO.

Answer:

UNESCO full form is the United Nations Educational Scientific & Cultural Organization. It is
a specialized agency of the United Nations organization that ensures that every child has the
proper education, and it also helps maintain cultural peace among nations. UNESCO lies within
the United Nations (UN) with the primary objective of fostering global harmony and
safeguarding security through international collaboration. The domains are education, arts,
sciences, and culture. Its membership comprises 193 member states and 12 associate members,
and partnerships with non-governmental, intergovernmental, and private entities. In Paris,
France, UNESCO operates through 53 regional field offices and 199 national commissions. It
plays a pivotal role in facilitating its worldwide mission.

 What is UNESCO?

UNESCO is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, an agency
of the UN Organisation. It seeks to build peace through international cooperation in Education,
the Sciences, and Culture. The constitution of UNESCO was adopted in London in 1945 and
entered into force in 1946. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) was established on 16 November 1945. It has 195 Members and 8
Associate Members and is governed by the General Conference and the Executive Board. The
decisions of the General Conference and the Executive Board are carried out by the Secretariat,
which the Director-General heads.

 Objectives of UNESCO:

UNESCO focuses on objectives in the global priority areas “Africa” and “Gender Equality.”

The objectives of UNESCO are listed below.

o Attaining quality education for all and lifelong learning

o Mobilizing science knowledge and policy for sustainable development
o Addressing emerging social and ethical challenges
o Fostering cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue, and a culture of peace
o Building inclusive knowledge societies through information and communication.
  Functions of UNESCO:

The functions of UNESCO are listed below.

o To encourage intellectual cooperation and mutual understanding among people through

all means of mass communication
o To maintain, increase and diffuse the knowledge
o To give a fresh impulse to popular education and the spread of culture
o Promotion of scientific research and training
o Application of sciences to ensure human development and the rational management of
natural resources.

 Important Initiatives of UNESCO

UNESCO engages in several significant initiatives, as highlighted below, to promote its

mission:

o Reviving the Spirit of Mosul: UNESCO aims to revitalize the ancient city of Mosul,
focusing on improving its heritage, reviving cultural life, and enhancing education.
o Futures of Education: This global initiative aims to reimagine the role of knowledge
and learning in shaping the future of humanity and the planet.
o Promoting Freedom of Expression: UNESCO advocates for pluralistic, free, and
independent media across various platforms, fostering human rights, peace,
sustainability, poverty alleviation, and freedom of expression.
o Building Knowledge Societies: UNESCO works towards increasing access. To
preserve, and share knowledge, with the goal of creating inclusive knowledge societies
and empowering local communities.
o UNESCO for Sustainable Cities: The organization is dedicated to enhancing the
sustainability of cities by providing policy guidance, technical assistance, and capacity
building.
o Preventing Violent Extremism: UNESCO commits to the UN Secretary-General's Plan
of Action to prevent violent extremism.
o Commitment to Biodiversity: UNESCO leverages its diverse networks and initiatives
to protect biodiversity, recognizing its significance for the planet.
 o UNESCO and Sustainable Development Goals: UNESCO actively participates in
achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through its expertise in education,
culture, natural sciences, and other specialized areas.
o Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme: It is a scientific intergovernmental
programme that strives to create a scientific foundation for improving the interaction
between people and their environments. There are 18 Biosphere Reserves in India.

 Important Reports of UNESCO:

Some of the important global reports of UNESCO are listed below.

i. Global education monitoring report

ii. Culture: urban future; global report on culture for sustainable urban
development
iii. The United Nations world water development report
iv. World trends in freedom of expression and media development: global report
v. International conference on Artificial intelligence and Education, Planning
education in the AI Era: Lead the leap
vi. Re|shaping cultural policies: advancing creativity for development
vii. Global ocean science report
viii. Engineering: issues, challenges, and opportunities for development
ix. UNESCO science report: towards 2030
x. UNESCO State of the Education Report for India: Children With Disabilities
Power and function of General Assembly.

Answer:

The functions and powers of the General Assembly are laid down under Article 10 to 17 of the
Charter of General Assembly. Those are described below:

 General Function:
General Assembly is a deliberative body. It has the powers of discussion, investigation,
review, supervision and to criticise in relation to the work of United Nation as a whole.
Article 10 of the UN Charter confers upon Assembly, a very wide power by providing
that Assembly may discuss any question or any matter within the scope of Charter or
relating to powers and functions of any organ.
After discussion, the Assembly may make recommendation on these questions and
matters to the member states or to the Security Council or to both.
However, the functions of the discussion is subject to one restriction which is provided
under Article 2 (7) of charter which prohibits intervention in the domestic affairs of the
state.
 Promotion of International Co-operation:
Article 13 of charter Confers to the Assembly specifically to initiate studies and make
recommendations for the purpose of the promotion of international co-operation.
Firstly, the promotion of international co-operation in political fields and encouraging
the progressive development of International law and its codification.
Secondly, the promotion of international co-operation in economic, social, cultural,
educational and health fields.
And assisting the realisation of human rights and fundamental freedom for all without
distinction as to race, sex, religion, and language.
 Maintenance of International Peace and security:
Although maintenance of international peace and security is the primary function of
Security Council, General Assembly, being an organ of the United Nation also perform
such function.
According to Article 11 of Charter, Assembly may any question relating to discuss to
international peace and security. Discussion on such question take place when they are
brought before the Assembly by any member of UN or by Security Council. After
discussion, assembly may make recommendation on any question relating to
 maintenance of international peace and Security Council. After discussion, assembly
may make recommendation on any question relating to maintenance of international
peace and security to the states to Security Council or to both.
Article 14 states that General Assembly may recommend measures for peaceful the
adjustment of any situation, regardless of origin, which it deems likely to impair the
general welfare or friendly relations among states.
 Elective Function:
General Assembly is known as Central Body of UN because it elects some or all of the
members of all the organs of the UN.
Assembly elects all the 10 non-permanent members of Security Council. It elects all
the 54 members of the Economic and social Council. It also elects some members of
Trusteeship Council. It elects 15 Judges of International Court of Justice. On the
recommendation of Security Council, secretary General of UN is also appointed by the
General Assembly. Assembly elects members for subsidiary organs which maybe
created by it.
 Financial Function:
General Assembly performs important functions relating to the finance of UN.
Article 17 says that it Considers and approves the budget Of the Organisation. It decides
the share of expenses to be borne by each member.
 Functions relating to Admission, Suspension and expulsion of members:
On the recommendation of the Security Council, A member is admitted to the UN by
General Assembly. The Assembly also co-operates with the Security Council in the
suspension of member states against which enforcement action is being taken. The
expulsion of those which have been persistently violating the principles of the charter.
 Supervisory Function:
General Assembly supervises the activities of other organs and the activities of the
specialized agencies of the organisation.
Article 15 says that it considers the annual and special reports of the Security Council.
It also considers reports of the other organs, such as, Economic and Social Council,
Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice and the Secretariat.
 Miscellancous function:
 Article 22:
 It may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the
performance of its functions.
 Article 108:
The charter may be amended when it has been adopted by a vote of 2/3 of the
members of the General Assembly including all permanent members of security
Council
Trusteeship Council.

Answer:

 Introduction

The Trusteeship Council is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations, established
to oversee the administration of trust territories and ensure that adequate steps are taken to
prepare these territories for self-governance and independence. It was established by the UN
Charter in 1945, under Chapter XIII.

 Mandate and Objectives

i. Supervision of Trust Territories: To ensure that the administration of trust territories
promotes the political, economic, social, and educational advancement of the
inhabitants.
ii. Self-Governance: To encourage and assist trust territories in progressing towards self-
governance or independence.
iii. Promotion of International Peace: To contribute to the maintenance of international
peace and security by ensuring that trust territories are managed responsibly and
progress towards stable governance structures.
 Structure

Membership: Initially composed of five permanent members (China, France, Russia, the
United Kingdom, and the United States) and those administering trust territories.

Operations: Functioned through regular meetings and sessions to discuss reports from the
administering authorities and to make recommendations regarding the administration and
progress of the trust territories.

 Historical Context

Origins: The Trusteeship Council succeeded the League of Nations' Mandates System, taking
over its responsibilities to oversee territories under colonial rule.

Trust Territories: Included former League of Nations mandates and territories taken from
countries defeated in World War II. Examples include Western Samoa, Tanganyika, and the
Cameroons.
Decolonization: Played a critical role during the decolonization period post-World War II,
aiding in the transition of numerous territories to independence.

 Functions
i. Review of Reports: The Trusteeship Council reviewed annual reports submitted by the
administering authorities of the trust territories.
ii. Field Visits: Conducted missions to trust territories to observe conditions and assess
the progress towards self-governance.
iii. Consultation with Inhabitants: Ensured the views and aspirations of the inhabitants
of trust territories were considered in the administration process.
 Achievements
i. Successful Transition: Facilitated the transition of all 11 trust territories to self-
governance or independence, with Palau being the last to achieve independence in
1994.
ii. Support for Decolonization: Supported the broader UN decolonization efforts,
contributing to the independence of over 80 former colonies.
 Challenges
i. Colonial Resistance faced resistance from colonial powers reluctant to relinquish
control over their territories.
ii. Diverse Conditions: The varied economic, social, and political conditions of trust
territories required tailored approaches, complicating the administration process.
 Current Status
iii. Suspension of Operations: With the independence of Palau in 1994, the Trusteeship
Council has suspended its operations and currently meets only as necessary.
iv. Future Role: There have been discussions about repurposing the Trusteeship Council
to address contemporary global issues, but no concrete steps have been taken.
 Impact on International Law and Governance
i. Legacy in Decolonization set a precedent for international oversight of territories
transitioning to self-governance, influencing future UN peacekeeping and nation-
building missions.
ii. Human Rights contributed to the promotion of human rights and self-determination
principles within international law.
 Relevance Today
 i. Symbolic Role: Represents a successful chapter in the UN’s history of promoting self-
determination and decolonization.
ii. Potential for Repurposing: Discussions continue about how the Trusteeship Council’s
mandate could be adapted to address issues like global commons governance,
environmental protection, or supporting failed states.
 Conclusion

The Trusteeship Council has played a significant role in the history of international governance,
particularly in facilitating the transition of trust territories to self-governance and
independence. While its original mandate has been fulfilled, the legacy of the Trusteeship
Council continues to influence international efforts toward promoting self-determination,
human rights, and global peace. The future of the Trusteeship Council remains a subject of
discussion, with potential for adaptation to meet contemporary global challenges.
Disarmaments.

Answer:

 Introduction

Disarmament refers to the reduction or elimination of a country's military forces and weapons.
It is a crucial aspect of international relations and political science, aimed at promoting global
peace and security by reducing the potential for armed conflict.

 Types of Disarmament
i. Unilateral Disarmament: When a single country independently decides to reduce or
eliminate its weapons.
ii. Bilateral Disarmament involves agreements between two countries to reduce or
eliminate their respective weapons.
iii. Multilateral Disarmament involves multiple countries agreeing to disarm
collectively, often under international treaties or agreements.
 Historical Context

Post-World War I: The Treaty of Versailles included disarmament clauses, particularly

targeting Germany.

Post-World War II: The establishment of the United Nations brought renewed focus on
disarmament to prevent future global conflicts.

Cold War Era: Characterized by an arms race between the USA and the USSR, efforts such
as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START)
were significant disarmament initiatives.

 International Efforts and Treaties

i. Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) - 1968 aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons
and promote peaceful use of nuclear energy.
ii. Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) - 1993 outlaws the production, stockpiling,
and use of chemical weapons.
iii. Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) - 1972 prohibits the development,
production, and acquisition of biological weapons.
iv. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) - 1996 bans all nuclear
explosions for both civilian and military purposes.
  Challenges to Disarmament
i. Political Will: Governments may be reluctant to disarm due to national security
concerns or political instability.
ii. Verification and Compliance: Ensuring that countries adhere to disarmament
agreements can be difficult without effective monitoring and verification mechanisms.
iii. Technological Advancements: Continuous advancements in weapon technology pose
challenges to existing disarmament frameworks.
iv. Regional Conflicts: Ongoing regional conflicts and rivalries can hinder disarmament
efforts.
 Case Studies
i. Nuclear Disarmament in South Africa: South Africa voluntarily dismantled its
nuclear weapons program in the early 1990s, setting a precedent for other countries.
ii. Libyan Disarmament: In 2003, Libya agreed to dismantle its weapons of mass
destruction (WMD) programs, demonstrating the impact of diplomatic negotiations.
 The Role of International Organizations

United Nations (UN): The UN plays a pivotal role in facilitating disarmament discussions and
implementing treaties through bodies like the UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA).

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): Monitors nuclear activities to ensure

compliance with disarmament agreements.

 Recent Developments
i. The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) - 2017 also known as
the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty, it aims to establish a comprehensive prohibition on
nuclear weapons.
ii. New START Treaty - 2010 A bilateral strategic arms reduction treaty between the
USA and Russia, recently extended to 2026.
 Conclusion

Disarmament remains a critical goal in international relations, aimed at reducing the threat of
armed conflict and promoting global peace. Despite significant challenges, continued
international cooperation and commitment to disarmament treaties and agreements are
essential for achieving long-term global security.
UNCTAD.

Answer:

 Introduction

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is a permanent

intergovernmental body established by the United Nations General Assembly in 1964. It aims
to promote the development-friendly integration of developing countries into the world
economy.

 Mandate and Objectives

i. Trade and Development: To promote international trade as a means of accelerating
economic development, particularly for developing countries.
ii. Investment and Enterprise Development: To assist developing countries in attracting
and benefiting from foreign direct investment and to foster the growth of small and
medium-sized enterprises.
iii. Technology and Logistics: To help developing countries build the capacity to
participate in and benefit from the global economy through technology and improved
logistics.
iv. Globalization and Development Strategies: To analyze and support policies that
ensure globalization benefits all countries.
 Functions
i. Research and Policy Analysis: UNCTAD conducts extensive research on global
economic trends and their impact on development. Its flagship reports, such as the
Trade and Development Report and the World Investment Report, provide valuable
insights.
ii. Consensus Building: Through intergovernmental meetings, UNCTAD fosters
dialogue and builds consensus on key economic and development issues. It provides a
platform for discussions among member states.
iii. Technical Cooperation: UNCTAD offers technical assistance to developing countries,
helping them to address specific development challenges and implement policies in
areas like trade, investment, and technology.
 Areas of Focus
 i. Trade: UNCTAD works to enhance the participation of developing countries in
international trade. It addresses issues such as market access, trade facilitation, and
trade negotiations.
ii. Investment: It promotes foreign direct investment (FDI) and provides policy advice to
create an enabling environment for investment. The World Investment Forum is a major
event organized by UNCTAD to facilitate dialogue between stakeholders.
iii. Finance: UNCTAD examines the international financial system's impact on
development and provides recommendations to ensure that developing countries can
access finance for development.
iv. Technology and Innovation: It supports developing countries in harnessing
technology and innovation for development. This includes building capacities in
information and communication technologies (ICTs).
v. Sustainable Development: UNCTAD integrates the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) into its work, particularly focusing on goals related to economic growth,
industry, innovation, and infrastructure.
 Achievements
i. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP): UNCTAD played a crucial role in
establishing the GSP, which allows developed countries to grant preferential tariff
treatment to imports from developing countries.
ii. Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development: This framework
provides guidance to policymakers on how to design policies that promote investment
while supporting sustainable development goals.
iii. E-Commerce and the Digital Economy: UNCTAD's work in this area includes the E-
Commerce Week, which brings together stakeholders to discuss the opportunities and
challenges of the digital economy for development.
 Challenges
i. Global Economic Inequality: Despite progress, significant disparities remain between
developed and developing countries. UNCTAD continues to address these inequalities.
ii. Implementation of Policies: Translating policy recommendations into actionable
strategies in developing countries remains a challenge due to resource constraints and
varying national contexts.
 iii. Evolving Global Economy: Rapid changes in the global economy, such as
technological advancements and shifts in trade patterns, require UNCTAD to
continuously adapt its strategies.
 Future Directions
i. Enhanced Technical Assistance: UNCTAD aims to increase its technical cooperation
activities to better support developing countries in implementing development
strategies.
ii. Digital Transformation: As the global economy becomes increasingly digital,
UNCTAD will focus on helping developing countries to harness the benefits of
digitalization.
iii. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): UNCTAD will continue to align its work
with the SDGs, ensuring that its policies and programs contribute to achieving these
global goals by 2030.
 Conclusion:

UNCTAD plays a vital role in promoting the integration of developing countries into the global
economy. Through its research, consensus-building, and technical assistance, it helps these
countries to navigate the complexities of international trade, investment, and development. As
the global economic landscape evolves, UNCTAD's work remains crucial in ensuring that the
benefits of globalization are shared equitably.