CHAPTER 10 – BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Biotechnology – Real World Use

 Biotechnology focuses on industrial-scale production using genetically modified

organisms (GMOs) like microbes, fungi, plants, and animals.

Key Application Areas:

1. Therapeutics
2. Genetically modified (GM) crops
3. Processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment, energy production

Three Critical Research Areas in Biotechnology:

(i) Developing efficient catalysts (e.g., enzymes or improved microbes)

(ii) Engineering optimal conditions for those catalysts
(iii) Downstream processing to purify products

10.1 BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE

Biotechnology helps improve:

 Food production
 Nutritional quality
 Pest and stress resistance

Three strategies to increase food production:

1. Agro-chemical based agriculture

2. Organic agriculture
3. Genetically engineered crop-based agriculture (GM crops)

Green revolution:

 Tripled food supply but still insufficient to meet growing demand.

 Relied on agrochemicals (fertilizers, pesticides) and improved crop varieties.
 Limitations:
o Overuse of agrochemicals harms soil, environment.
o In developing countries, agrochemicals are unaffordable or unavailable.

TISSUE CULTURE: A BIOTECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTION

Definition:

 Technique to regenerate a whole plant from any plant cell/tissue under sterile,
nutrient-rich conditions (like in a test tube).
Totipotency:

 Ability of a single cell (e.g., explant) to regenerate into a whole plant.

Micropropagation:

 Large-scale cloning of plants using tissue culture.

 Produces genetically identical plants (called somaclones).
 Used for: tomato, banana, apple, etc.

Virus-free plants via tissue culture

 Infected plants can be made virus-free by using meristematic tissues

(apical/axillary buds).
 Meristems are usually virus-free.
 Grown in vitro to produce healthy, virus-free clones.
 Used in banana, sugarcane, and potato propagation.

Somatic hybridisation

 Fusion of isolated protoplasts (plant cells without walls) from different

species/varieties.
 Leads to somatic hybrids combining desirable traits.
 Used in crop improvement.

🔹 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

🔹 Bt Crops and Biopesticides

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

What are GMOs?

Organisms (plants, animals, microbes) whose genes are altered by genetic manipulation
for specific traits.

Benefits of Genetic Modification:

1. Tolerance to abiotic stress (cold, drought, salinity, heat)

2. Reduced chemical pesticide use (via pest-resistant crops)
3. Post-harvest loss reduction
4. Efficient mineral usage by crops
5. Nutritional enhancement (e.g., Golden Rice with Vitamin A)

Also used to:

 Make tailor-made plants for industries (starch, fuels, pharmaceuticals)

Bt Crops (Biopesticide Example)

Bt = Bacillus thuringiensis

 A bacterium that produces insecticidal proteins (Bt toxins).

Bt Cotton:

 Bt gene is inserted into cotton plants.

 Produces toxins that kill lepidopteran larvae (e.g., bollworms).
 Toxin is in the form of protein crystals during sporulation phase.

How Bt Toxin Works:

 Insect ingests Bt crystal → protein is activated in the alkaline gut.

 Toxin binds to midgut epithelial cells → forms pores → cell swelling, lysis & insect
death.

Bt toxin is safe for humans & beneficial insects, as it's activated only in alkaline insect
gut.

Bt Toxin Genes and Their Target Pests

 Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) produces different Cry proteins, each toxic to specific

insects.
 cryIAc and cryIIAb genes are inserted into cotton plants to control:
o CryIAc → cotton bollworms
o CryIIAb → corn borers

 (a) Cotton boll destroyed by bollworm

 (b) Healthy cotton boll in Bt cotton
Pest-Resistant Plants via RNA Interference (RNAi)

Problem:

 Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) infects tobacco roots, reducing crop

yield.

Solution: RNA Interference (RNAi)

 A natural gene silencing mechanism used to block expression of specific genes.

 Works by:
o Introducing dsRNA (double-stranded RNA) complementary to the target
gene's mRNA
o Binding leads to mRNA degradation, preventing protein synthesis.

Application:

 Scientists introduced nematode-specific genes into tobacco plants using

Agrobacterium vectors.
 Transgenic plants produced dsRNA, which silenced the nematode’s gene,
protecting the plant.

This creates a genetically engineered plant resistant to pests without using pesticides.

10.2 BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE

Role of recombinant DNA technology in medicine

  Enables mass production of safe and effective therapeutic drugs.
 Reduces immune rejection risks, which were common with animal-based
products.
 Over 30 recombinant therapeutics approved in India; 12 are in use.

10.2.1 GENETICALLY ENGINEERED INSULIN

Why engineered insulin was needed?

 Earlier, insulin was extracted from pancreas of slaughtered pigs and cattle.
 Problems:
o Risk of allergic reactions
o Immunological issues due to being foreign proteins

Recombinant insulin: the better alternative

 Produced using bacteria (e.g., E. coli) by inserting the human insulin gene.
 Bacteria multiply and synthesize human insulin in bulk.

Structure of human insulin

 Composed of two short polypeptide chains:

o Chain A
o Chain B
 Linked by disulphide bridges

Maturation of human insulin

In mammals:

 Insulin is first produced as an inactive precursor called proinsulin.

 Proinsulin contains:
o A chain
o B chain
o C peptide (connecting peptide)

Activation:

 C peptide is removed during maturation.

 Mature insulin has only A and B chains, joined by disulphide bridges.

In recombinant DNA tech:

 A & B chains are produced separately in E. coli.

 They are then extracted, purified, and combined to form functional insulin.
10.2.2 Gene Therapy

What is gene therapy?

 A technique to correct defective genes responsible for disease.

 Works by inserting a normal functional gene into cells.

ADA (Adenosine Deaminase) Deficiency: A Gene Therapy Case Study

 A genetic disorder affecting the immune system.

 ADA enzyme is necessary for T-lymphocyte function.
 Lack of ADA leads to severe immunodeficiency.

Treatment via gene therapy:

1. Functional ADA gene inserted into T-lymphocytes from the patient.

2. Modified cells are grown and reinfused into the patient.
3. This restores partial immune function.

Note: This was not permanent as cells eventually die; repeated therapy is needed unless
stem cells are modified.

10.2.3 Molecular Diagnosis (Intro Only)

 Early and accurate disease detection is crucial for better treatment.

 Advanced biotech tools are used to detect diseases before symptoms appear.

Molecular diagnostics

Biotechnology enables early and accurate diagnosis even before symptoms appear.

Key techniques:

1. PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

 oDetects very low amounts of pathogen DNA/RNA.
o Used to detect HIV, genetic disorders, etc.
2. ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay)
o Detects antigens (proteins of pathogen) or antibodies produced against the
pathogen.
3. DNA Probes
o A radio-labelled DNA strand binds to complementary DNA in a sample.
o Helpful in identifying genetic mutations.

10.3 TRANSGENIC ANIMALS

Definition:

Transgenic animals are those whose DNA has been manipulated to carry and express
foreign genes.

Examples:

Rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows, fish – more than 65% are mice.

Uses of transgenic animals:

1. Study normal physiology and development

o Helps in studying the effect of genes on development and functions.
2. Study of disease
o Transgenic animals are created to mimic human diseases (cancer,
Alzheimer’s, etc.) for research and drug testing.
3. Biological products
o e.g., Transgenic cows producing human protein-enriched milk.

Transgenic animals as sources of biological products

Biological products

 Transgenic animals are genetically modified to produce therapeutic proteins.

 Example:
o Rosie – the first transgenic cow (1997), produced milk enriched with human
α-lactalbumin.
o Milk was more nutritionally balanced for human infants.

Use in vaccine testing

 Transgenic mice are used to test vaccine safety before human trials.
 They reduce ethical concerns and time in testing.

10.4 ETHICAL ISSUES IN BIOTECHNOLOGY

 Manipulation of living organisms raises ethical concerns.

  Biotech should follow strict ethical standards and regulations.

Regulatory bodies in India

 GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee):

o Approves genetically modified research and product release.
o Ensures environmental & consumer safety.

Biopiracy

 Biopiracy refers to using biological resources (plants, genes, knowledge) of a region

without authorization or benefit-sharing.
 Many traditional knowledge systems (e.g., Neem, Turmeric) have been exploited
commercially without compensating local communities.

Biopiracy – a deeper look

Biopiracy is the unauthorized use or patenting of biological resources and traditional

knowledge from developing countries by multinational companies, without fair
compensation or credit.

Case study: Basmati rice patent

 In 1997, a US company was granted a patent for a new variety of Basmati rice.
 This variety was actually developed from Indian varieties.
 The patent implied that Indian farmers would have to pay to grow their own native
rice.
 India contested the patent and proved it was not a new variety.
 The patent was eventually revoked.

Issues with biopiracy:

 Often involves herbal products (e.g., turmeric, neem) used in Indian traditional
medicine.
 Local communities often do not receive recognition or compensation.
 Most affected countries are poor but rich in biodiversity.

Role of Indian parliament

 Recently amended the Indian Patents Bill.

 The new law prevents biopiracy by:
o Considering traditional knowledge
o Ensuring benefit sharing
o Supporting research and development