ofl igi of univers ie universe is very old — almost 20 billion years 4, Huge clusters of galaxies comprise the Galaxies contain stars and clouds of gas and dust. Considering the size of universe, earth is indeed a speck The Big Bang theory attempts to explain to us the origin of universe. It talks of a singular huge explosion unimaginable in physical terms. ‘The universe expanded and hence, the tempera- ture came down, Hydrogen and Helium formed sometime later. ation and + The gases condensed under grav formed the galaxies of the present day universe. In the solar system of the milky way galaxy, earth was supposed to have been formed about 45 billion years back. There was no atmosphere on early earth, Water vapour, methane, CO, and ammonia released from molten mass covered the surface. ‘The UV rays from the sun brokeup water into fiydrogen and Oxygen and the lighter H, escaped. Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane tp form water, CO, and others, The ozone layer was formed. i Asit cooled, the water vapour fell as rain, to fill all the depressions and form oceans. + Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth, ie., almost 4 billion years back. Theory of panspermia: Did life come from outerspace? Some scientists believe that it came from outside. Early Greek thinkers thought units of life called spores were transferred to different planets including earth. ‘Panspermia’ is still a favourite idea for some ‘stonomers, Theory of spontaneous generation: * For a long time it was also believed that life came out of decaying and rotting matter like straw, mud, etc. This was the theory of spontaneous generation Louis Pasteur by careful experimentation demonstrated that life comes only from pre- existing life He showed that in pre-sterilised flasks, life did not come from killed yeast while in another flask open to air, new living organisms arose from ‘killed yeast’ Spontaneous generation theory was dismissed ‘once and for all. However, this did not answer how the first life form came on earth. Theory of chemical evolution: Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that the first form of life could have come from pre-existing non-living organic molecules (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.) and that formation of life was preceded by chemical evolution, i.e., formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents. The conditions on earth were — temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere containing CH,, NH, etc. In 1953, S.L. Miller, an American scientist lar conditions in a laboratory scale igh created s (Figure). He created electric discharge in a closed flask containing CHy Hy NH, and water vapour at 800°C, He observed forthation of amino acids. In similar experiments others observed, forma- tion of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment and fats. Scanned with CamScani* Analysis of meteorite content also re’ similar compounds indicating that similar processes are 0 led turting elsewhere in space. %* With this limited evidence, the first part of the speculated story, i.e. chemical evolution was more or less accepted, We have no idea about how the first self- replicating metabolic capsule of life arose, % The first non ellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion years back. They would have been giant molecules (RNA, Protein, Polysaccharides, etc.). These capsules reproduced their molecuies perhaps. * The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till about 2000 million years ago. These were probably * All gle-cells. forms were in water environment only. version of a biogenesis, i.e., the first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary forces from non-living molecules is accepted by majority EVOLUTION OF LIFE FORMS - A THEORY * Conventional religious literature tells us about the theory of special creation. * This theory has three connotations (suggested or implied outlines). 1. all living organisms (species or types) that we see today were created as such. 2. the diversity was always the same since creation and will be the same in future also, 3. earth is about 4000 years old. % All these ideas were strongly challenged during the nineteenth century. + Based on observations made during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle round the world, Charles Darwin concluded that existing living forms share similarities to varying degrees not only among themselves but also with life forms that existed millions of years ago. Many such life forms do not exist any more, There had been extinctions of different life forms in they ears gone by just as new forms of life arose at different periods of history of earth, de There has been gradual evolution of life form 4 Any population has built in variation in charg teristics. Those characteristics Which enable som, to survive better in natural conditions (climate, food, physical factors, etc.) would outbreeg (reproduce more quickly) others that are ess. endowed (less equipped) (0 survive under sych natural conditions. & Another word used is fitness of the individya) or population. The fitness, according to Darwin, refers ultimately and only to reproductive fitness, Hence, those who are better fit in an environment, leave more progeny than others, These, therefore, will survive more and hence _ are selected by nature. He called it naturaj ; selection and implied it as a mechanism of evolution. ‘Also remember that Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago had also come to similar conclusions around the same time. + In due course of time, apparently new types of, organisms are recognisable. * All the existing life forms share similarities and share common ancestors. However, these ancestors were present at different periods in the history of earth (epochs, periods and eras). * The geological history of earth closely correlates with the biological history of earth. WHAT ARE THE EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION? Evidence that evolution of life forms has indeed taken place on earth has come from many quarters. Paleontological evidence: % Fossils are remains of hard parts of life-forms found in rocks. * Rocks form sediments and a cross-section earth’s crust indicates the arrangement sediments one over the other during the lo history of earth. 5 * Different aged rock sediments contain fos different life-forms who probably died ¢ the formation of the particular sediment. Scanned with CamScani— , study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicates the geological period in which they existed. The study showed that life-forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological timespans. Hence, new forms of life have arisen different times in the history of earth. iat is radioactive-dating? State the principle yetind the procedure, , It is a dating method of determining the age of earth materials or objects of organic origin based on measurement of either short lived radioactive elements or the amount of a long-lived radioactive element plus its decay product. + Principle - Each radioactive element decays at its own nearly constant rate. Once this rate is known, geologists can estimate the length of time over which decay has been occurring by measuring the amount of radioactive parent clement, the amount of stable daughter elements and the amount of radioactive substances left, thus giving the age of the different things like rocks. Embryological evidences: + Embryological support for evolution was also proposed by Ernst Haeckel based upon the observation of certain features during embryonic stage common to all vertebrates that are absent in adult. + For example, the embryos of all vertebrates including human develop a row of vestigial gill slit just behind the head but it is a functional organ only in fish and not found in any other adult vertebrates. * However, this proposal was disapproved on careful study performed by Karl Ernst von Baer. He noted that embryos never pass through the adult stages of other animals. [Evidences from comparative anatomy and morphology: + Comparative anatomy and morphology shows similarities and differences among organisms of +t For example whales, bats, Cheetah and human (all mammals) share similarities in the pattern of bones of forelimbs. Though these forelimbs perform different functions in these animals, they have similar anatomical structure ~ all of them have humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges in their forelimbs. + Hence, in these animals, the same structure developed along different directions due to adaptations to different needs. This is Divergent Evolution and these structures are homologous. % Homology indicates common ancestry. Other examples are vertebrate hearts or brains. % In plants also, the thorn and tendrils of Bougainvillea and Cucurbita represent homology. % Homology is based on divergent evolution whereas analogy refers to a situation exactly opposite. % Wings of butterfly and of birds look alike. They are not anatomically similar structures though they perform similar functions. % Hence, analogous structures are a result of Convergent Evolution different structures evolving for the same function and hence having similarity. % Other examples of analogy are the eye of the octopus and of mammals or the flippers of. Penguins and Dolphins. * One can say that it is the similar habitat that has resulted in selection of similar adaptive features in different groups of organisms but toward the same function: + Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem modification) is another example for analogy. Biochemical (molecular) evidences: * In the same line of argument, similarities in Proteins and genes performing a given function among diverse organisms give clues to common ancestry. + These biochemical simil today and those that existed years ago. ati ae a om tietsame i i jctural similarities a + Such similarities can be interpreted to understand diverse organisms S among whether common ancestors were shared or not = canned With VamscaniObservations supporting evolution by selection: * Man has bred selected plants and animals for agriculture, horticulture, sport or security. Man has domesticated many wild animals and crops. This intensive breeding programme has created breeds that differ from other breeds (¢.g., dogs) but still are of the same group. * It is argued that if within hundreds of years, man could create new breeds, could not nature have done the same over million Industrial melanism: of years? Another inter ting observation supporting evolution by natural selection comes from England. * In a collection of moths made in 1850s, i.e., before industrialisation set in, it was observed that there were more white-winged moths on trees than dark-winged or melanised moths * However, in the collection carried out from the same area, but after industrialisation, ie. in 1920, there were more dark-winged moths in the same area, i.e., the proportion was reversed. * The explanation put forth for this observation was that ‘predators will spot a moth against a contrasting background”. * During post industrialisation period, the tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and soots. %* Under this condition the white-winged moth did not survive due to predators, dark-winged or melanised moth survived. % Before industrialisation set in, thick growth of almost white-coloured lichen covered the trees - in that background the white winged moth survived but the dark-coloured moth were picked out by predators. % Lichens can be used as industrial pollution indicators. They will not grow in areas that are polluted, Hence, moths that were able to camou- flage themselves, i.e., hide in the background, survived. % This understanding is supported by the fact that in areas where industrialisation did not occur eg, in rural areas, the count of melanic moths was low. This showed that in a mixed population sth, that can better-adapt, Survive and jngys cP ion size, se ig population size. ‘% Remember that no variant is completely out J Similarly, excess use of herbicides, pesiig, _ has only resulted in selection of resigy ties in a much lesser time scale. tan 2 This is also true for microbes against which 4. employ antibiotics or drugs against eukaryoi. organisms/cell + Hence, resistant organisms/cells are appearing in a time scale of months or years and yo, centuries. These are examples of evolution by anthropogenic action. % This also tells us that evolution is not a directed process in the sense of determinism, It is 4 stochastic process based on chance events in nature and chance mutation in the organisms, In simple language: % Evolution is not planned. There is no step by step process that it followed to reach from one celled organisms to more developed animals like humans through fishes and amphibians, %* There was a probability that the world could be something completely different than what itis right now if the conditions were even a slightly different. * Evolution is random. If the environmental conditions favour heat resistant organisms, the heat resistant organisms flourish and increase in number making maximum proportion of the population. * Nobody can predict what change might occir in nature or what mutation takes place in am organism and hence nobody can predict what direction evolution will move forward in. WHAT IS ADAPTIVE RADIATION? % The process of evolution of different species i? a given geographical area starting on Point and literally radiating to other area geography (habitats) is called adapti'® radiation. Scanned with CamScanisample No. 1: puring his journey Darwin went to Galapagos " Jslands. There he observed an amazing diversity of creatures. of particular interest, small black birds later * called Darwin’s Finches amazed him, He realised that there were many varieties of finches in the same island, + All the varieties, he speculated, evolved on the island itself. From the original seed-eating features, many other forms with altered beaks arose, enabling them to become insectivorous and vegetarian finches, + Darwin’s finches represent one of the best examples of this adaptive radiation. 0, Can Human Evolution be called as Adaptive Radiation? No, human evolution cannot be called an adaptive radiation, This is because adaptive radiation is an evolutionary process that produces multiple new species from a single, rapidly diversifying lineage. Human evolution is a slow, lengthy and continuing process which was originated from ape like ancestors evolved over a period of approximately five to six million years ago. Human evolution can be categorized into each species as each milestone. Human evolution represents an example of anagenesis. (Amagenesis is the gradual evolution of a species that continues to exist as an interbreeding population) Example No. 2: Another example is Australian marsupials. A dumber of marsupials, eachdifferent from the other (Figure) evolved from an ancestral stock, but all Within the Australian island continent, ‘Tasmanian wolt nwa te Morsupiat EGR Lv. a cat 7 BRN ‘ = FE andes Koala AUSTRALIA 4 anteater ¥ Marsupial Bandicoot rat Rais ‘Wombat ‘Kangaroo Fig. Adaptive radiation of marsupials of Australia When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an isolated geographical area (Representing different habitats), one can call this convergent evolution. Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation in evolving into varieties of such placental mammals each ofwhich appears to be ‘similar’ to a corresponding marsupial (e.g., Placental wolf and Tasmanianwolf-marsupial). Scanned with CamScaniNiche tralian marsupials _ | oe | | ‘ > Sorewacd | {ep | Marsupial zt Anteater AF? Numbat (anteater) | hoe | ~~ RR % Agen Mouse Anteater Marsupial mouse ct Lemur Glider — Flying squirrel phalanger| 4 | Cat ie | ‘Ocelot | Tasmanian tiger cat ‘Wolf / e Tasmanian wolf Difference between adaptive radiation and convergent evolution? %* Adaptive radiation refers to an evolutionary process in which different species evolve from ‘a common ancestor, on inhabiting new areas as they successfully adapt to their environment; while convergent evolution is an evolutionary process in which different structures of different species are evolved for the same function. % Hence during adaptive radiation, the changes are determined by the environment. The organism evolves to survive in a particular environment. % Therefore, if two different adaptive radiation occurs in an area, then it is most likely that both the evolved species will have similar adaptations to survive in that particular area. % Hence, they will develop similar structures to perform similar functions. BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION * Evolution by natural selection, in a true, would have started when cellular forms a with differences in metabolic capa” originated on earth ity, ‘The essence of Darwinian theory about eyo), is natural selection. The rate of appearance. new forms is linked t0 the life evcle or they span. _ Microbes that divide fast have the abitiy multiply and become millions of individu, within hours, A colony of bacteria (say 4, growing on a given medium has built-in vaitng in terms of ability to utilise a feed componen, ‘A change in the medium composition woutg bring out only that part of the population (sy B) that can survive under the new conditions, In due course of time this variant population ‘outgrows the others and appears as new species ‘This would happen within days. For the same thing to happen in a fish or fowl would take millions of years as life spans of these animals are in years. Here we say that fitness of B is better than that of A under the new conditions. Nature selects for fitness. ‘One must remember that the so-called fitness is based on characteristics which are inherited. Hence, there must be a genetic basis for getting selected and to evolve. Another way of saying the same thing is that some organisms are better adapted to survive it an otherwise hostile environment. Adaptive ability is inherited. It has a genetic basis. Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature. Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts of Darwinian theory evolution. Even before Darwin, a French naturalist Lamarek had said that evolution of life fo™ had occurred but driven by use and dists? organs.He gave the examples of Giraffes who in an * tempt to forage leaves on tall trees had to adapt by elongation of their necks. ‘As they passed on this acquired character of elongated neck to succeeding generations, Giraffes, slowly, over the years, came to acquire Jong necks. Nobody believes this conjecture any more. cd stelcing nt aap si nea becomes eckiovesceoves tnd progressively loose ofgiat Neher upaties... vetoing ‘Grane Salient Features of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution: PE als =) [ean preston of| =| beds cs ce Popuiaton || pase’ | [oestence| > [Ye Fermaton | __[Iertance nat mettane Natal Ginow” | | tesa | co | sua Salient Features of Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution: Speciaton} Q. Is evolution a process or the result of a process? ‘The world we see, in animate and animate, is only the success stories of evolution. When we describe the story of this world we describe evolution as a process. * On the other hand when we describe the story of life on earth, we treat evolution as a consequence of a process called natural selection. * We are still not very clear whether to regard evolution and natural selection as processes or end result of unknown processes. %* It is possible that the work of Thomas Malthus on populations influenced Darwin. Natural selection is based on certain observations which are factual * For example, natural resources are limited, populations are stable in size except for seasonal fluctuation, members of a population vary in characteristics (in fact no two individuals are alike) even though they look superficially similar, most of variations are inherited etc. %* The fact that theoretically population size will grow exponentially if everybody reproduced maximally (this fact can be seen in a growing bacterial population) and the fact that population sizes in reality are limited, means that there had been competition for resources. % Only some survived and grew at the cost of others that could not flourish. The novelty and brilliant. Insight of Darwin was this: he asserted that Variations, which are heritable and which make Tesource utilisation better for few (adapted to habitat better) will enable only those to reproduce and leave more progeny. * Hence for a period of time, 5 over many generations, survivors will leave more pro; geny and there would be a change in population characteristic and hence new fi forms aj pS Ppear to MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION * What is the origin of this = variation an does speciation occur? how Scanned with CamScani(biggest weakness of Darwinism) % In the first decade of twentieth century, Hugo deVries based on his work on Qenothera lamarckiana (evening, primrose) brought forth the idea of mutations ~ large difference arising suddenly in a population. He believed that it is mutation which causes evolution and not the minor variations (heritable) that Darwin talked about Mutations are random and directionless while Darwinian variations are small and directional, ** Evolution for Darwin was gradual while deVries believed mutation caused speciation and hence called it saltation (single step large mutation). HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE * In a given population one can find out the ‘quency of occurrence of alleles of a gene or a locus. This frequency is supposed to remain fixed and even remain the same through generations, * Hardy-Weinberg principle stated it using algebraic equations, %* This principle says that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation to generation, % The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant, This is called genetic equilibrium. Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1 %* Individual frequencies, for example, can be named p, q, etc. In a diploid, p and q represent the frequency of allele A and allele a, %* The frequency of AA individuals in a population is simply p?. % This is simply stated in another ways, ie., the probability that an allele A with a frequency of p appear on both the chromosomes of a diploid individual is simply the product of the probabilities, i.e., p*. * Similarly of aa is q?, of Aa 2pq. Hence, p? + 2pq adie % This is a binomial expansion of (p+q)?. % When frequency measured, differ, expected values, the difference (qj, indicates the extent of evolutionary ch, ® ftom TeCtign, lange, % Disturbance in genetic equilibrium, or ja,4 Weinberg equilibrium, i.e., change” frequency of alleles in a population would tye, be interpreted as resulting in evolution, Factors that affect Hardy-Weinberg equilipriyyy, %* Five factors are known to affect Hardy. Weinberg equilibrium. These are gene or gene flow, genetic drift, mutation, genetic recombination and natural selection, % When migration of a section ofpopulation to another place and population occurs, gene frequencies change in the original as well as in the new population. + New genes/alleles are added to the new population and these are lost from the old population. There would be a gene flow if this gene migration, happens multiple times. If the same change occurs by chance, it is called genetic drift. % Sometimes the change in allele frequency is so different in the new sample of population that they become a different species. The original drifted population becomes founders and the effect is called founder effect. * Microbial experiments show that pre-existing advantageous mutations when selected will result in observation of new phenotypes. * Over few generations, this would result in Speciation. + Natural selection is a process in which heritable variations enabling better survival are enabled to reproduce and leave greater number of progeny. A critical analysismakes us believe that variation due to mutation or variation due to recombination during gametogenesis, or due t0 gene flow or genetic drift results in changed frequency of genes and alleles in future generation. % Coupled to enhance reproductive success, natural selection makes it 100k like different scanned with Camscalpopulation . of natural selection: Natural selection can lead to stabilisation (in * hich more individuals acquire mean character fnlue), directional change (more individuals acquire value other than the mean character olue) or disruption (more individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of the distribution curve). ) Stabilizing selection Population after natural “Ina hypothetical population, gray and Himalayan | (gray and white) rabbits are better able to blend with a rocky environment than white rabbits, resulting in diversifying selection g (p) Directional selection Population after natural selection. Original population Robins typically lay four eggs, an example of stabilizing selection. Larger clutches may result in malnourished chicks, while smaller clutches may result in no viable offspring, (c) Diversifying selection Population after natural selection Original population Light-colored peoppered months are better comouflaged against a pristine environment; likewise, dark-colored peppered months are better comoflaged against a sooty environment. Thus, as the in nineteenth-century England, the color of the moth population shifted from light to dark, an example of directional selection. SOLVED EXAMPLES OF HARDY WEINBERG EQUATION: Example 1. The frequency of two alleles in a gene pool is 0.19 (A) and 0.81 (a). Assume that the population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. (a) Calculate the percentage of heterozygous individuals in the population. Sol. According to the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium equation, heterozygotes are represented by the 2pq term, Therefore, the number of heterozygous individuals (Aa) is equal to 2pq which equals 2 x 0.19 x 0.81 = 0.31 or 31%. (b) Calculate the percentage of homozygous recessives in the population. Sol. The homozygous recessive individuals (aa) are represented by the q? term in the H-W equilibrium equation which equals 0.81 x 0.81 = 0.66 or 66%. Example 2. An allele W, for white wool, is dominant over allele w, for black wool. In a sample of 900 sheep, 891 are white and 9 are black. Calculate the Scanned with CamScaniallelic frequencies within this population, assuming that the population is in H-W equilibrium Sol. The allelic frequency of w is represented by the q term and the allelic frequency W is represented by the p term, To calculate the value of q, realize that qq or q? represents the homozygous recessive individuals or the black sheep in this case. Sin there are 9 black sheep, the frequency of black sheep. #individuals __9 _ 9.9} total individuals. 900” thus ww = q?= 0.01 - a=Ve =V00i=0.1 Additionally, p + q = 1, thus p= 1-4 (or) p= 1-0.1 (or) 0.9 > p=W=0.9 and q=w=0.1 Example 3. In a population that is in Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium, the frequency of the recessive homozygote genotype of a certain trait is 0.09 Calculate the percentage of individuals homozygous for the dominant allele. Sol.We know that the frequency of the recessive homozygote genotype is q? and equal to 0.09. 30 and we also know that Thus, p=1-q « p=1-030=0.70 <. The homozygote dominants are represented by p? = (0.70) = 0.49 or 49% Example 4, In a population that is in Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium, 38% of the individuals are recessive homozygotes for a certain trait. In a 0, calculate the percentage of ant individuals and hetero- population of 14,50 homozygous domin; zygous individuals. Sol.Always start with the homozygous recessive percentage if given, which is equal to 4°. naq= Ya? = V038 -. a= 0.616 Solving for p is now straight forward : p+4 thus p=} -q=1-9=1~0.616 = 0.384 ‘The homozygous dominant individ represented by p? = 0.3847 = 0.147 14,500 x 0.0147 = 2,132 homozygous uals are dominant individuals The heterozygotes are represented by the 2p, = 2x 0616 x 0.384 =0473 859 term and 2pq 14,500 x 0.473 Double check : 0.38 x 14,500 = 5.510 4,501 (due to some rounding) 5,510 + 2,132 + 6,859 = Example 5. In humans, the Rh factor genetic information is inherited from our parents, but itis inherited independently of the ABO blood type alleles, In humans, Rh* individuals have the Rh antigen on their red blood cells, while Rh individuals do not. There are two different alleles for the Rh factor known as Rh* and rh. Assume that a dominant gene Rh produces the Rh* phenotype, ‘and that the recessive th allele produces the Rl phenotype. In a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, if 160 out of 200 individuals are Rht, calculate the frequencies of both alleles. Sol. Always start with the homozygous recessive percentage if given, which is equal 10 4° If 160 and 200 individuals are Rh*, then it stands to reason that 40 are Rhr. Thus, the frequency of q*, the Rhr genotype is 40 ——=0.20 200 =, q=¥0.20 (01) q= 0.45 and p+4=1 so, p=1-q=1-045 = 0.55 , Rh* allele frequency = 0.55 and th allele frequency = 0.45 (A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION About 2000 million years ago (mya) the first cellular forms of life appeared on earth. se Some of these cells had the ability to release O,, ‘The reaction could have been similar to the light reaction in photosynthesis where water is split with the help of solar energy captured and channelised by appropriate light harvesting pigments. # Slowly single-celled organisms became multi- cellular life forms. Scanned with CamScanipy the time of 500 mya, invertebrates were * formed and active Jawless fish probably evolyed around 350 mya. sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320 mya, We are told that the first organisms that invaded land were plants. They were wide spread on land when animals invaded land. Fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back to water, This was about 350mya. + In1938, a fish caught in South Africa happened to be a Coelacanth which was thought to be extinct. These animals called lobe fins evolved into the first amphibians that lived on both land and water. There are no specimens of these left with us, However, these were ancestors of modern day frogsand salamanders. + The amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay thick shelled eggs which do not dry up in sun unlike those of amphibians. Again we only see their modern day descendants, the turtles, tortoises and crocodiles. + In the next 200 million years or so, reptiles of different shapes and sizes dominated on earth + Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly. + Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles probably 200mya (e.g. Ichthyosaurs). + The land reptiles were, of course, the dinosaurs. The biggest of them, i.e., Tyrannosaurus rex was about 20 feet in height and had huge fear some dagger like teeth. ‘About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth. We do not know the true reason. Some say climatic changes Killed them, Some say most of them evolved into birds. The truth may live in between. Small sized reptiles of that erastill exist today. x The first mammals were like shrews. Their fossils are small sized. % Mammals were viviparous and protected their unborn young inside the mother’s body + Mammals were more intelligent in sensing and avoiding danger at least. When reptiles came down mammals took over this earth. There were in South America mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit ete %* Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were overridden by North American carnivorous fauna # Due to the same continental drift pouched mammals of Australia survived because of lack of competition from any other mammal. * Lest we forget, some mammals live wholly in water. Whales, dolphins, seals and sea cows are some examples. Evolution of horse, elephant, dog.etc., are special stories of evolution. Different types of dinosaurs: rie, Tyranvosourous —Stegosauus he Treeratns Biggest carnivorous dinosaur Biggest herbivorous dinosaur * Tyrannosaurus * Brachiosaurus * Ichthyosaurus * Pteranodon Aquatic dinosaur Flying dinosaur Scanned witn LamscaniEVOLUTION OF REPTILES, BIRDS & MAMMALS: | Turtle Lizards | Coenozoie Era (Dur.65M yrs) Mesozoic Era (Dur.180M yrs) = Sauropsids | Palaeozoic Era |(Dur.300M yrs) | Stem Reptiles] Some primitive reptiles : Eye Seren A ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN % The most successful story of evolution is the evolution of man with language skills and self- consciousness. %* About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were existing. They were hairy and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees, Ramapithecus was more man-like while Dryopithecus was more ape-like. % Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in Ethiopia and Tanzania. These revealed hominid features leading tothe belief that about 3-4 mya, man-like primates walked in Eastern Africa. They were probably not taller than 4 feet but walked up right. Snakes a Synapsids * Tuatara Crocodile Birds M ammaly) Dinosaurs odont ‘Two mya, Australopithecines probably lived jp East African grasslands, Evidence shows thy hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruit. Some of the bones among the bones discovered were different. This creature was called the firs human-like being the hominid and was called Homo habilis.The brain capacities were between 650-800cc. They probably did not eatmeat Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 revealed the next stage, i.e., Homo erectus about 1.5 mya Homo erectus had a large brain around 900cc. Homo erectus probably ate meat. ‘The Neanderthal man with a brain size of 1400cc lived in near East and Central Asia between 1,00,000-40,000 years back. They used hides to protect their body and buried their dead. Homo sapiens arose in Africa and moved across continents and developed into distinct races. During ice age between 75,000-10,000 years agomodern Homo sapiens arose. Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago. One such cave paintings by Pre-historic humans canbe seen at Bhimbetka rock shelter in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh. Agriculture came around 10,000 years back and human settlements started. Scanned with CamScani