Overview of Cells – Notes

●​ Definition:​
▸ Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals.​

●​ Origin:​
▸ All cells arise from the division of preexisting cells.​

●​ Functionality:​
▸ Cells are the smallest units in the body that carry out all vital physiological
functions.​

●​ Quantity:​
▸ An adult human body contains approximately 75 trillion cells.​

●​ Homeostasis:​
▸ Each cell helps maintain homeostasis at the cellular level.​

●​ Diversity:​
▸ Cells differ in size, shape, and form, depending on their specific functions.​

●​ Study of Cells:​
▸ The study of cellular structure and function is called cytology.​
▸ Cytology is now a part of the broader field of cell biology.​

●​ Cell Biology Includes:​

▸ Biology​
▸ Chemistry​
▸ Physics

Structure of the Cell – Notes

🔹 Types of Cells in the Human Body

●​ The human body has two general classes of cells:​

1.​ Sex Cells (also called Germ Cells or Reproductive Cells):​

■​ In males: Sperm​

■​ In females: Oocytes​
 2.​ Somatic Cells:​

■​ Derived from the term "soma", meaning "body".​

■​ Include all other cells in the human body except sex cells.​

■​ The current chapter focuses on somatic cells.​

🔹 Three Major Parts of a Cell

1.​ Cell Membrane:​

○​ Also called the plasma membrane.​

○​ Encloses the entire cell.​

○​ Surrounds the nucleus, cytoplasm, and various organelles.​

○​ Acts as a protective barrier and regulates entry/exit of substances.​

2.​ Nucleus:​

○​ Contains the cell’s genetic material (DNA).​

○​ Controls and regulates cell activities such as growth, metabolism, and

reproduction.​

3.​ Cytoplasm:​

○​ The fluid-filled region inside the cell.​

○​ Fills out the cell and gives it shape.​

○​ Suspends the organelles.​

🔹 Organelles
●​ Organelles are:​
 ○​ Microscopic, specialized structures within the cell.​

○​ Each performs a specific function necessary for cell survival.​

●​ Functions of organelles are vital for:​

○​ Cell life​

○​ Tissue function​

○​ Overall functioning of the organism

📌 Cell Membrane – Notes

🔹 General Overview
●​ Also called the plasma membrane.​

●​ Controls movement of substances into and out of the cell.​

●​ Enables selective communication between:​

○​ Intracellular compartment (inside the cell)​

○​ Extracellular compartment (outside the cell)​

●​ Aids in cellular movement and helps give shape/form to the cell.​

●​ Site of many biological activities within the cell.​

🔹 Functions of the Cell Membrane

●​ Detects and transmits signals from outside the cell to the inside.​

●​ Adheres cells together when they form tissues.​

●​ Selective permeability: Only specific substances can enter or exit the cell.​

○​ Also described as:​

■​ Differentially permeable​
 ■​ Semipermeable​

●​ Facilitates:​

○​ Cell-to-cell communication​

○​ Cell recognition​

○​ Transport of substances​

🔹 Structure and Characteristics

●​ Very thin and delicate​

●​ Flexible – can stretch to various degrees​

●​ The surface has tiny folds to increase surface area​

🔹 Key Composition
●​ Made up of lipids and proteins​

●​ Arranged in a double layer of phospholipid molecules (also called phospholipid

bilayer)​

🔸 Phospholipid Bilayer:
●​ Phosphate head: Hydrophilic (water-attracting), faces outward​

●​ Fatty acid tails: Hydrophobic (water-repelling), faces inward​

●​ Organizes naturally to shield hydrophobic tails and expose hydrophilic heads to

water​

●​ Formation of bilayer is energy-independent​

🔸 Selective Transport:
 ●​ Can pass through the bilayer:​

○​ Lipid-soluble substances like oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂)​

●​ Cannot pass through the bilayer:​

○​ Amino acids​

○​ Proteins​

○​ Nucleic acids​

○​ Ions​

○​ Sugars​

🔸 Cholesterol:
●​ Found in the inner membrane​

●​ Stabilizes the membrane structure​

🔹 Proteins in the Cell Membrane

🔸 Classification by Position:
●​ Based on their location in the membrane​

🔸 Shapes:
●​ Fibrous​

●​ Globular​

●​ Rod-like​

🔸 Functions:
●​ Receptors for:​
 ○​ Hormones​

○​ Growth factors​

●​ Transport proteins:​

○​ Help move substances across the membrane​

●​ Form selective ion channels:​

○​ Control entry/exit of specific ions​

●​ Surface proteins may:​

○​ Extend outward​

○​ Help mark the cell’s identity (e.g., as part of a specific tissue or organ)​

🔸 Glycoproteins:
●​ Many membrane proteins are bound to carbohydrates​

●​ Function in cell recognition, signalling, and immune response

📌 Membrane Lipids – Notes

🔹 Lipid Bilayer – Basic Fabric
●​ Main structure of the cell membrane is the lipid bilayer.​

●​ Composed of:​

○​ Phospholipids​

○​ Glycolipids​

○​ Cholesterol​

○​ Lipid rafts​
🔷 1. Phospholipids
●​ Major component of the cell membrane.​

●​ Composed of charged (polar) and uncharged (nonpolar) parts:​

​
▸ Head:​

○​ Polar, hydrophilic (water-attracting)​

○​ Faces the inner and outer watery environments​

●​ ▸ Tail:​

○​ Nonpolar, hydrophobic (water-repelling)​

○​ Aligned in the middle of the membrane​

●​ Structure resembles a lollipop:​

○​ Round head, long tail​

●​ Arranged in two parallel sheets (bilayer) → tails face inward, heads face outward.​

●​ Self-orienting:​

○​ Encourages biological membranes to form closed, round structures​

○​ Can reseal when torn​

●​ The membrane is fluid-like (consistency similar to olive oil):​

○​ Lipid molecules move side-to-side within the layer.​

○​ Polar–nonpolar interactions prevent them from flipping sides.​

●​ Most phospholipids are unsaturated:​

○​ Unsaturated tails form kinks, increasing space and fluidity of the

membrane.​
🔷 2. Glycolipids
●​ Lipids with sugar groups attached.​

●​ Located only on the outer surface of the plasma membrane.​

●​ Comprise about 5% of total membrane lipids.​

​
▸ Sugar end → Polar​
▸ Fatty acid tails → Nonpolar​

●​ Function in cell recognition, cell–cell interaction, and membrane stability.​

🔷 3. Cholesterol
●​ Found within the bilayer, about 20% of membrane lipids.​
​
▸ Polar region → Hydroxyl group​
▸ Nonpolar region → Fused ring system​

●​ Wedges between phospholipid tails.​

●​ Functions:​

○​ Stabilizes membrane​

○​ Decreases mobility of phospholipids​

○​ Reduces membrane fluidity​

🔷 4. Lipid Rafts
●​ Dynamic, tightly packed microdomains of membrane.​

●​ Contain:​

○​ Saturated phospholipids​
 ○​ Sphingolipids (unique lipids)​

○​ High cholesterol content​

●​ Make up about 20% of the outer membrane surface.​

●​ Characteristics:​

○​ More stable, less fluid than surrounding membrane​

○​ Resemble quilts in appearance​

●​ Functions:​

○​ Include/exclude proteins selectively​

○​ Likely involved in:​

■​ Cell signaling​

■​ Membrane invagination (infolding)​

■​ Protein concentration at specific sites

📌 Membrane Proteins – Notes

🔹 Overview
●​ ~50% of the plasma membrane’s mass is made of proteins.​

●​ Proteins allow the cell to communicate with its environment.​

●​ Responsible for most specialized membrane functions.​

●​ Some proteins float freely, while others are anchored to the cytoskeleton.​

🔷 Types of Membrane Proteins

There are two major types based on their location:

✅ 1. Integral Proteins
●​ Inserted into the lipid bilayer.​

●​ Most are transmembrane proteins:​

○​ Span both sides of the membrane.​

●​ Some protrude from only one side.​

●​ Have both:​

○​ Hydrophobic regions (interact with lipid tails)​

○​ Hydrophilic regions (interact with watery environments)​

🔸 Functions:
●​ Participate in signal transduction:​
→ Relay messages from outside to inside the cell.​

●​ May also:​

○​ Act as enzymes​

○​ Function as carriers, channels, or receptors​

✅ 2. Peripheral Proteins
●​ Loosely attached to integral proteins (not embedded in bilayer).​

●​ Can be easily removed without disrupting membrane.​

●​ Often located on the cytoplasmic side, supported by a network of filaments.​

●​ Fewer in number compared to integral proteins.​

🔷 Functions of Membrane Proteins (Integral & Peripheral)
🔸 Anchoring Proteins:
●​ Attach plasma membrane to:​

○​ Cytoskeleton (inside)​

○​ Extracellular structures or adjacent cells (outside)​

●​ Stabilize the cell’s position.​

🔸 Recognition Proteins (Identifiers):

●​ Help cells recognize other cells as normal or abnormal.​

●​ Usually glycoproteins (proteins + carbohydrates).​

🔸 Enzymes:
●​ Can be integral or peripheral.​

●​ Catalyze reactions either in:​

○​ Cytosol (if on inner surface)​

○​ Extracellular fluid (if on outer surface)​

●​ Example:​
→ Dipeptides broken down into amino acids by enzymes in intestinal lining.​

🔸 Receptor Proteins:
●​ Bind to extracellular ligands (signals like:​

○​ Calcium ions​

○​ Hormones like insulin)​

●​ Trigger cellular responses.​

 ●​ Insulin receptor: Promotes glucose absorption into cell.​

●​ Cells have different types/quantities of receptors → explains selective hormone

sensitivity.​

🔸 Carrier Proteins (Transporters):

●​ Bind and transport solutes across membrane.​

●​ May require ATP.​

●​ Examples:​

○​ Glucose transporter: Brings glucose in without ATP​

○​ Ion transporters (e.g., Na⁺, Ca²⁺): Require ATP​

🔸 Channels:
●​ Integral proteins with central pores.​

●​ Allow small solutes or water to pass through.​

●​ Ions cannot dissolve in lipids → must pass via channels.​

●​ Many are ion-specific.​

●​ Channels make up only 0.2% of surface, but are essential for:​

○​ Muscle contraction​

○​ Nerve impulse transmission​

🔷 Additional Notes
●​ Plasma membranes have asymmetrical surfaces:​

○​ Some enzymes only on inner side.​

 ○​ Some receptors only on outer side.​

●​ Certain proteins remain localized in lipid rafts:​

○​ Rafts may contain anchoring proteins or receptors.​

●​ Membrane phospholipids are fluid at body temperature:​

○​ Allows integral proteins to move within membrane.​

○​ Entire membrane undergoes metabolic turnover:​

■​ Parts removed and recycled regularly.​

📌 Membrane Carbohydrates – Notes

🔹 General Overview
●​ Carbohydrates make up about 3% of the weight of the plasma membrane.​

●​ Present as part of:​

○​ Proteoglycans​

○​ Glycoproteins​

○​ Glycolipids​

○​ Other complex molecules​

🔹 Glycocalyx – The Carbohydrate Layer

●​ Glycocalyx:​
A carbohydrate-rich layer that extends beyond the outer membrane surface.​

●​ Formed by the carbohydrate portions of:​

○​ Glycoproteins​

○​ Glycolipids​
🔷 Functions of the Glycocalyx
✅ 1. Anchoring and Locomotion
●​ The sticky components help:​

○​ Anchor the cell in place.​

○​ Aid in movement of specialized cells.​

✅ 2. Binding Specificity (Receptor Function)

●​ Glycoproteins and glycolipids can act as receptors:​

○​ Bind specific extracellular compounds.​

○​ May alter cell surface properties and indirectly affect cell activities.​

✅ 3. Lubrication and Protection

●​ The viscous layer formed by glycoproteins & glycolipids:​

○​ Lubricates the cell surface.​

○​ Protects the plasma membrane from physical and chemical injury.​

✅ 4. Recognition (Immune Function)

●​ Glycoproteins and glycolipids on the cell surface are:​

○​ Recognized by immune cells as “self” or “foreign”.​

○​ Help in immune surveillance.​

●​ The genetic makeup of an individual determines the specific characteristics of

their glycocalyx.​

●​ The immune system:​

 ○​ Recognizes its own glycocalyx and does not attack self-cells.​

○​ Can identify and destroy pathogens with foreign glycocalyx markers.​

🔷 Membrane as a Selective Barrier

●​ The plasma membrane separates the extracellular fluid from the cytosol.​

●​ For cellular survival, the membrane must allow:​

○​ Entry of nutrients​

○​ Exit of metabolic wastes​

○​ Selective transport of larger compounds and dissolved substances​

Cytoplasm – Notes

🔹 Definition
●​ Cytoplasm is the substance between the cell membrane and the nucleus.​

●​ It includes all cellular contents except the nucleus.​

●​ Serves as a matrix where chemical reactions take place.​

🔹 General Characteristics
●​ Gel-like material that suspends organelles.​

●​ Makes up most of the cell’s volume.​

●​ Appears clear with scattered specks under low magnification.​

●​ Under high magnification, it reveals:​

○​ Membranous networks​
 ○​ Protein frameworks​

○​ The cytoskeleton​

🔹 Components of Cytoplasm
●​ Consists of two main parts:​

1.​ Cytosol (fluid portion)​

2.​ Organelles (excluding the nucleus)​

🔷 Cytosol – Notes
✅ Definition
●​ The fluid portion of the cytoplasm.​

●​ Cannot be removed by centrifugation.​

●​ Contains:​

○​ Mostly water​

○​ Glucose​

○​ Amino acids​

○​ Fatty acids​

○​ Ions​

○​ Lipids​

○​ Proteins​

○​ ATP​
 ○​ Waste products​

✅ Function
●​ Site of many essential chemical reactions required for cell survival and
metabolism.​

🔷 Cytosol vs Extracellular Fluid – Key Differences

Feature Cytosol Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

Protein Content Higher concentration (many are Lower

enzymes)

Potassium Ions Higher concentration Lower

(K⁺)

Sodium Ions Lower concentration Higher

(Na⁺)

Other Contents Small amounts of lipids, Varies depending on tissue

carbohydrates, and amino acids and location

📌 Organelles – Notes
🔹 General Overview
●​ Organelles are specialized structures within the cytoplasm that perform specific
functions.​

●​ Cytoplasm:​

○​ Receives, processes, and uses nutrients​

 ○​ Contains membranous and nonmembranous organelles​

●​ Organelles contribute to:​

○​ Cell structure​

○​ Growth​

○​ Maintenance​

○​ Metabolism​

●​ Membranes of organelles can interact via the endomembrane system.​

🔷 1. Microtubules
●​ Hollow tubes made of tubulin protein.​

●​ Largest cytoskeletal components (~25 nm).​

●​ Originate from the centrosome near the nucleus.​

🔸 Functions:
●​ Form primary cytoskeleton → provides strength, rigidity, and organelle
positioning​

●​ Disassembly allows cell shape change and movement​

●​ Assist in intracellular transport of vesicles/organelles:​

○​ Via molecular motors:​

■​ Dynein and Kinesin​

■​ Require ATP​

●​ Form the spindle apparatus during cell division​

●​ Form parts of centrioles, cilia, and flagella​

🔷 2. Centrioles & Centrosome
●​ Centrioles:​

○​ Cylindrical structures made of short microtubules​

○​ Involved in spindle formation during mitosis​

○​ Absent in skeletal, cardiac muscle cells, neurons, and RBCs​

○​ Cannot divide without centrioles​

●​ Centrosome:​

○​ Region surrounding centrioles​

○​ Also called the cell center​

○​ Microtubules radiate from here throughout the cytoplasm​

○​ Structure: 9 triplets of microtubules arranged like a pinwheel​

●​ Centrioles also form basal bodies of cilia and flagella​

🔷 3. Cytoskeletal Elements
●​ Three types:​

1.​ Microfilaments:​

■​ Composed of actin and myosin​

■​ Found especially in muscle cells​

■​ Help in movement and contraction of cells​

■​ Enable shape changes​

 2.​ Intermediate Filaments:​

■​ Provide mechanical strength to cells​

■​ Medium-sized​

3.​ Microtubules:​

■​ Already covered above​

🔷 4. Cilia and Flagella

🔸 Cilia:
●​ Short, hair-like structures​

●​ Move in coordinated, sweeping motion​

●​ Function: Propel fluids over tissue surfaces​

●​ Found in respiratory and reproductive tracts​

●​ Formed from centrioles beneath the membrane​

●​ Motion involves:​

○​ Power stroke and recovery stroke​

○​ ~10–20 strokes/sec​

○​ Movement creates a surface current​

🔸 Flagella:
●​ Longer than cilia, usually one per cell​

●​ Example: Tail of sperm cell​

●​ Function: Propel the cell itself​

🔸 Primary (Nonmotile) Cilia:
●​ Present as one per cell​

●​ Act as sensory antennae​

●​ Detect external molecules​

●​ Regulate embryonic development and tissue maintenance​

🔷 5. Microvilli
●​ Tiny, finger-like projections of the plasma membrane​

●​ Increase surface area for absorption​

●​ Found in:​

○​ Kidney tubules​

○​ Intestinal lining​

●​ Contain actin filament core (for stiffening and support)​

🔷 6. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

🔸 General Structure:
●​ Network of membranes connected to the nuclear envelope​

●​ Forms interconnected tubules and cisterns (fluid-filled cavities)​

●​ Twisted and coiled through the cytosol​

●​ Makes up ~50% of total cell membranes​

✅ Types of ER:
🔹 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER):
●​ Studded with fixed ribosomes​

●​ Ribosomes synthesize proteins that enter the ER for processing​

●​ Gives a “studded” appearance​

🔹 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER):

●​ No ribosomes on surface​

●​ Continuous with RER​

●​ Structure: Network of looped tubules​

🔸 Functions of SER:
●​ Synthesizes:​

○​ Phospholipids​

○​ Cholesterol​

●​ Contributes to membrane growth and maintenance

📌 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – Continued

🔷 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
🔸 Structure & Location
●​ No ribosomes on outer surface → smooth appearance​

●​ Forms a network of looped tubules​

●​ Continuous with RER​

●​ Present in very small amounts in most cells​

 ●​ In cardiac and skeletal muscle, it is called the sarcoplasmic reticulum​

🔸 Functions of SER
●​ Lipid metabolism​

●​ Steroid hormone synthesis​

●​ Detoxification of:​

○​ Drugs​

○​ Carcinogens​

○​ Other harmful chemicals​

●​ Glycogen breakdown into free glucose​

●​ Fat absorption, synthesis, and transport​

●​ In muscle cells (sarcoplasmic reticulum):​

○​ Stores and releases calcium during muscle contraction​

🔷 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

🔸 Structure
●​ Outer surface studded with fixed ribosomes​

●​ Appears “studded” under microscope​

●​ Continuous with nuclear envelope​

●​ Composed of interconnected cisterns and tubules​

🔸 Functions of RER
●​ Protein synthesis:​

○​ Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes​

○​ Inserted into cisterns for folding and modification​

○​ Enclosed in vesicles for transport to the Golgi apparatus​

●​ Membrane production:​

○​ Synthesizes integral proteins and phospholipids​

○​ These are incorporated into cell membranes​

●​ Lipid synthesis enzymes:​

○​ Present on the external face​

○​ Have active sites for lipid synthesis​

🔸 Distribution and Specialization

●​ Highly developed in:​

○​ Secretory cells​

○​ Liver cells​

○​ Antibody-producing plasma cells​

●​ Pancreatic cells (digestive enzyme producers):​

○​ Extensive RER​

○​ Very little SER​

●​ Reproductive cells (steroid hormone synthesis):​

○​ More SER, less RER​

🔷 Ribosome Role in ER
●​ Both free and fixed ribosomes synthesize proteins​

●​ Use messenger RNA (mRNA) as instructions

📌 Mitochondria – The Powerhouse of the Cell

🔹 Structure
●​ Shape: Thread-like or bean-shaped​

●​ Number: Varies from 100 to several thousand per cell (except mature RBCs which
have none)​

●​ Membranes:​

○​ Outer membrane: Smooth​

○​ Inner membrane: Folded into cristae​

●​ Cristae: Increase surface area for energy production; protrude into matrix​

●​ Matrix: Central fluid-filled cavity enclosed by inner membrane​

●​ Similar in structure to plasma membrane​

🔹 Dynamic Nature
●​ Continuously move and change shape​

●​ Often found in clusters near sites of high energy demand​

●​ Present in large numbers in:​

○​ Liver​
 ○​ Kidneys​

○​ Muscles​

🔹 Genetic Material
●​ Contain their own DNA, RNA, and ribosomes​

●​ Mitochondrial DNA is primitive and bacteria-like​

●​ Mitochondria are similar to purple bacteria phylum​

●​ Can reproduce independently within the cell (via fission)​

🔹 Energy Production
●​ Central role: ATP synthesis (adenosine triphosphate)​

●​ Process: Aerobic cellular respiration​

○​ Glucose and food fuels broken down to CO₂ and H₂O​

○​ Enzymes in the matrix and cristae involved​

○​ Energy released is used to attach phosphate to ADP → ATP​

🔹 Protein Synthesis
●​ ~37 mitochondrial genes code for 1% of mitochondrial proteins​

●​ 99% of mitochondrial proteins are encoded by nuclear DNA​

🔹 Adaptation to Energy Demand

 ●​ As ATP demand increases:​

○​ Mitochondria multiply via fission​

○​ Or increase the number of cristae​

○​ Grow back to original size

Peroxisomes – The Detox Units of the Cell

🔹 Structure & Formation

●​ Small, spherical membrane-bound sacs​

●​ Appear similar to lysosomes​

●​ Form by budding off from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) through special
processes​

🔹 Location
●​ Abundant in:​

○​ Liver cells​

○​ Kidney cells​

🔹 Enzymes Present
●​ Oxidases​

●​ Catalases​

🔹 Key Functions
 1.​ Detoxification:​

○​ Oxidases use molecular oxygen to neutralize:​

■​ Alcohol​

■​ Formaldehyde​

■​ Other harmful substances​

○​ Free radicals (harmful, highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons)

are converted into:​

■​ Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) → then into water (H₂O) by catalase​

2.​ Neutralization of Free Radicals:​

○​ Prevents damage to biological molecules like lipids, DNA, and proteins​

○​ Free radicals and hydrogen peroxide are natural byproducts of metabolism

but toxic in excess​

3.​ Lipid Metabolism:​

○​ Involved in breaking down and synthesizing fatty acids​

○​ Supports energy metabolism​

4.​ Bile Acid Synthesis:​

○​ Contributes to the formation of bile acids, important for fat digestion​

🧠 Quick Recap Keywords

●​ Oxidases & Catalases​

●​ Free radicals → H₂O₂ → H₂O​

●​ Liver & kidney​

 ●​ Lipid breakdown + bile acid synthesis​

●​ Detoxification & energy metabolism

📌 Ribosomes – The Protein Factories of the Cell

🔹 Structure
●​ Small, dark-staining granules​

●​ Made of:​

○​ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)​

○​ Proteins​

●​ Composed of two globular subunits:​

○​ Fit together like an acorn​

○​ Form functional ribosomes​

🔹 Location
●​ Found in two forms:​

1.​ Free Ribosomes: Float freely in cytoplasm​

2.​ Membrane-bound Ribosomes: Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum

(RER)​

🔹 Functions
●​ Site of protein synthesis​

●​ Two roles based on type:​

 1.​ Free Ribosomes:​

■​ Synthesize soluble proteins​

■​ These proteins:​

■​ Function within the cytoplasm​

■​ Or are transported to mitochondria and other organelles​

2.​ Membrane-bound Ribosomes:​

■​ Synthesize proteins for:​

■​ Cell membranes​

■​ Lysosomes​

■​ Secretion outside the cell​

■​ Responsible for RER’s studded appearance​

🔹 Dynamic Nature
●​ Can attach or detach from the ER depending on:​

○​ The type of protein being synthesized​

●​ Ribosomes are functionally flexible and can shift roles

🟢 Vesicles (Vacuoles)
●​ Membrane-bound sacs inside the cytoplasm​

●​ Formed by inward folding of the cell membrane​

●​ Look like bubble-like structures​

●​ Contain:​
 ○​ Liquid or solid substances​

○​ Previously outside the cell membrane​

●​ Function:​

○​ Transport, store, or digest cellular materials​

🟢 Endomembrane System
●​ A functional system of organelles that:​

○​ Produce, store, transport, and degrade biological molecules​

○​ Detoxify harmful substances​

🔹 Components:
●​ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – both RER and SER​

●​ Golgi apparatus​

●​ Secretory vesicles​

●​ Lysosomes​

●​ Nuclear membrane​

●​ Plasma membrane (functionally included)​

🔹 Key Features:
●​ Organelle membranes are:​

○​ Structurally continuous OR​

○​ Connected via vesicle transport​

 ●​ Examples:​

○​ ER vesicles → fuse with Golgi → Golgi vesicles → lysosomes / plasma

membrane / secretion​

🟢 Cytoskeleton
●​ Intracellular structural framework​

●​ Made of:​

○​ Protein rods​

○​ Linking proteins​

●​ Runs through the cytosol, connecting organelles​

●​ Functions:​

○​ Acts as skeleton, muscles, and ligaments​

○​ Supports shape, strength, and movement​

○​ Involved in cell division, organelle positioning, and transport​

🔴 1. Microfilaments
●​ Thinnest cytoskeletal elements​

●​ Made of: Actin protein​

●​ Semiflexible and fragile​

●​ Present in almost all cells​

●​ Forms a terminal web under the plasma membrane​

🔸 Functions:
●​ Supports the cell surface​

●​ Resists compression​

●​ Transmits force during movement​

●​ Involved in:​

○​ Cell shape changes​

○​ Amoeboid movement​

○​ Exocytosis / Endocytosis​

○​ Cytokinesis (cell pinching during division)​

●​ Interacts with unconventional myosin for contraction​

●​ Dynamic: break down and reform as needed (except in muscle cells)​

🟠 2. Intermediate Filaments
●​ Thicker than microfilaments, thinner than microtubules​

●​ Rope-like, made of strong, insoluble protein fibers​

●​ Twisted tetramer fibrils​

🔸 Functions:
●​ Provide high tensile strength​

●​ Most stable and permanent cytoskeletal elements​

●​ Anchor organelles​

●​ Attach to desmosomes to resist pulling forces​

 ●​ Protein composition varies:​

○​ Ex: in nerve cells, called neurofilaments​

🔵 3. Microtubules
●​ Largest cytoskeletal elements (25 nm diameter)​

●​ Hollow tubes made of tubulin protein subunits​

●​ Originate from the centrosome near the nucleus​

●​ Highly dynamic: constantly assembling and disassembling​

🔸 Functions:
●​ Maintain cell shape​

●​ Act as tracks for organelle transport​

○​ Organelles like lysosomes, mitochondria, secretory vesicles hang from

them​

●​ Guide motor proteins like:​

○​ Dyneins and Kinesins​

○​ Powered by ATP​

○​ Move or reposition materials along the microtubules​

●​ Involved in:​

○​ Spindle formation during mitosis​

○​ Cilia and flagella structural base​

✳️ Quick Comparison Chart:
Feature Microfilaments Intermediate Filaments Microtubules

Thickness Thinnest Intermediate Thickest

Protein Actin Varies (e.g., keratin) Tubulin

Function (main) Shape & Strength & Stability Transport &

Movement Shape

Stability Dynamic Very stable Dynamic

Example Roles Amoeboid motion Anchor organelles Organelle

transport

Special Terminal web Desmosome support Spindle fibers,

Structures cilia

Nucleus — The Control Center of the Cell

🔹 General Characteristics
●​ Largest and most visible organelle in the cell.​

●​ Acts as the control center of the cell.​

●​ Contains DNA (genetic material) that directs all cellular activities, including:​

○​ Growth, repair, protein synthesis, cell division.​

●​ A single nucleus holds instructions for producing ~100,000 proteins.​

 ●​ Cells without a nucleus (e.g., mature RBCs) cannot repair themselves and die in
3–4 months.​

🔹 Functions of the Nucleus

●​ Stores genetic information in chromosomes (DNA + proteins).​

●​ Directs protein synthesis via gene expression.​

●​ Controls structure and function of the cell by regulating gene expression.​

🔹 Nuclear Structure
●​ Nuclear Envelope:​

○​ Double membrane (inner & outer lipid bilayers).​

○​ Has a protein lining.​

○​ Contains nuclear pores for selective exchange.​

●​ Nuclear Pore Complexes:​

○​ Large protein complexes with a central channel.​

○​ Ions and small molecules move freely when open.​

○​ Larger molecules (e.g., RNA, proteins) require energy for transport.​

●​ Nucleoplasm:​

○​ Fluid inside the nucleus.​

○​ Suspends structures like nucleolus, chromatin, nucleosomes, etc.​

🧪 Key Nuclear Components
🔹 1. Nucleolus (plural: nucleoli)
●​ A dark-stained, transient, non-membranous body inside the nucleus.​

●​ Composed mainly of:​

○​ RNA​

○​ Enzymes​

○​ Histone proteins​

●​ Functions:​

○​ Synthesizes ribosomal RNA (rRNA).​

○​ Produces ribosome subunits, which exit via nuclear pores.​

○​ Highly active in cells producing proteins:​

■​ Liver, muscles, nerves​

🔹 2. Chromatin
●​ Loosely coiled DNA + proteins (including histones)​

●​ Present in a non-dividing cell​

●​ Appears grainy/clumpy under a microscope​

●​ During cell division, chromatin condenses to form chromosomes​

🔹 3. Chromosomes
●​ Highly condensed DNA structures formed from coiled chromatin.​
 ●​ Consist of:​

○​ DNA​

○​ Histones and other proteins​

●​ Contain genes (functional DNA units) responsible for protein synthesis.​

🔹 4. Nucleosome
●​ Basic structural unit of chromatin​

●​ Formed when:​

○​ DNA wraps around histone proteins​

●​ Functions:​

○​ Compacts DNA​

○​ Regulates gene access and expression​

●​ Chains of nucleosomes coil further depending on whether the cell is dividing.​

🧬 Genetic Code and DNA Structure

●​ DNA bases:​

○​ Adenine (A)​

○​ Thymine (T)​

○​ Cytosine (C)​

○​ Guanine (G)​

●​ Genes:​
 ○​ Segments of DNA that encode proteins​

●​ Triplet Code:​

○​ Three nitrogenous bases (a codon) specify one amino acid​

○​ Forms the basis of protein synthesis​

🧠 Special Cases of Nuclei

Cell Type Nucleus Feature

Skeletal muscle cells Multinucleated (many nuclei)

Mature RBCs Anucleated (no nucleus)

Liver/muscle/nerve Large nucleoli due to high protein

cells synthesis

✳️ Quick Summary
Structure Description / Function

Nucleus Control center of the cell; stores DNA

Nucleolus Makes rRNA and ribosome subunits

Nucleoplasm Gel-like fluid suspending nuclear contents

Nuclear Regulate transport in/out of nucleus

Pores

Chromatin Uncoiled DNA; forms chromosomes during

division

Nucleosome DNA wrapped around histones; compacts DNA

Chromosome Coiled, condensed DNA during cell division

s

🧬 Gene Activation in Protein Synthesis

🔹 What is Gene Activation?
●​ Genes are usually inactive, kept so by bound histones.​

●​ To use a gene, the histones must be temporarily removed.​

●​ The DNA segment containing the gene uncoils, exposing the genetic code.​

●​ This process is called gene activation.​

●​ Still partially understood but essential for starting protein synthesis.​

🔹 Structure of a Gene
●​ Every gene contains:​

○​ Control segments (or promoters) at the start.​

 ○​ A "stop" signal at the end.​

●​ These segments consist of nitrogenous base triplets (codons).​

●​ These triplets help regulate when and how a gene is activated.​

🔹 How Gene Activation Happens

1.​ Temporary disruption of weak hydrogen bonds between DNA strands.​

2.​ Histone guarding the promoter is removed.​

3.​ DNA uncoils at that region.​

4.​ The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region.​

○​ This initiates transcription.​

✏️ Transcription – First Step of Protein Synthesis

●​ Definition: Transcription is the copying of genetic information from DNA to RNA.​

●​ Occurs inside the nucleus.​

🔸 Key RNA Types Synthesized:

1.​ mRNA (messenger RNA) – ⭐ most important​
○​ Carries genetic instructions from DNA to ribosomes.​

○​ Essential, since DNA cannot leave the nucleus.​

2.​ tRNA (transfer RNA) – brings amino acids during translation.​

3.​ rRNA (ribosomal RNA) – forms part of ribosomes.​

🔹 Why is mRNA Important?
●​ Acts as the messenger between DNA (in nucleus) and ribosomes (in cytoplasm).​

●​ Carries the exact code for making the needed protein.​

●​ Once formed, mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the cytoplasm where
translation begins.​

✅ Quick Recap Table

Term Function/Description

Gene Activation Uncoiling of DNA, removal of histones, enabling

transcription

Promoter Start site on DNA where RNA polymerase binds

RNA Enzyme that initiates transcription

Polymerase

mRNA Messenger RNA carrying genetic code from DNA to

ribosome

Transcription Copying of genetic code from DNA to RNA

Triplet Codons Sequences of 3 bases; regulate gene activity and code

amino acids
🔬 Translation – Protein Synthesis in the Cytoplasm
🔹 What is Translation?
●​ Translation is the assembly of a linear amino acid chain (polypeptide) using the
mRNA template.​

●​ Happens in the cytoplasm.​

●​ Performed by ribosomes, which “translate” the mRNA code into a functional

polypeptide (protein).​

🔹 Role of mRNA
●​ mRNA (messenger RNA) carries codons (triplets of nitrogenous bases), each
coding for a specific amino acid.​

●​ Each codon = 1 amino acid.​

🔹 Role of tRNA
●​ tRNA (transfer RNA) is small, mobile, and specific to each amino acid.​

●​ Each type of tRNA:​

○​ Has a tail that binds to a specific amino acid.​

○​ Has a loop in the middle with an anticodon (3 nitrogenous bases).​

●​ The anticodon forms complementary base pairs with the codon on mRNA.​

●​ This ensures that the correct amino acid is added in the correct sequence.​

🧩 tRNA = Link between mRNA codons and amino acids

🔹 Process of Translation
1.​ Initiation:​

○​ Ribosome binds to the start codon (AUG) on mRNA.​

○​ The first tRNA (carrying methionine) binds to AUG via complementary

anticodon.​

2.​ Elongation:​

○​ Ribosome reads one codon at a time.​

○​ tRNA molecules bring amino acids and bind via anticodon-codon pairing.​

○​ Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds, forming a growing polypeptide

chain.​

3.​ Termination:​

○​ Ribosome reaches a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA).​

○​ The polypeptide chain is released.​

○​ mRNA and ribosome separate.​

🔹 Efficiency of Translation
●​ A typical protein can be formed in ~20 seconds.​

●​ One mRNA strand:​

○​ Can be used by multiple ribosomes simultaneously.​

○​ Produces multiple copies of the same protein.​

●​ These ribosomes form a polyribosome (polysome) – a chain of ribosomes reading

one mRNA.​
🔹 Fate of mRNA
●​ Remains intact during translation.​

●​ Can be reused to make more protein.​

●​ Eventually broken down, and its nucleotides recycled.​

✅ Quick Summary Table

Component Role in Translation

mRNA Provides codon sequence for amino acids

tRNA Brings specific amino acids; contains anticodons

Ribosome Site of translation; reads mRNA, builds polypeptide

Codon 3-base mRNA sequence; codes for 1 amino acid

Anticodon 3-base tRNA sequence; complementary to mRNA

codon

Polyribosom Multiple ribosomes translating one mRNA

e simultaneously

Stop Codon Signals end of translation

🧠 Nuclear Control of Cell Structure and Function

The nucleus is the command center of the cell. It controls protein synthesis, thereby
regulating cell structure and cell functions.

🔸 Levels of Nuclear Control

1. Direct Control

●​ Controls structural protein synthesis:​

○​ Cytoskeletal components (e.g., microtubules, actin)​

○​ Membrane proteins (e.g., receptors, channels)​

○​ Secretory products (e.g., enzymes, hormones)​

●​ Occurs via mRNA instructions.​

●​ Effects:​

○​ Alters internal structure​

○​ Changes cell responsiveness​

○​ Modifies secretion​

2. Indirect Control

●​ Regulates cellular metabolism by controlling enzyme synthesis.​

●​ The nucleus can:​

○​ Increase/decrease enzymes involved in metabolic pathways.​

○​ Example: Speeds up glycolysis by producing more enzymes in the

cytoplasm.​

🔸 Gene Activation and External Signals

 ●​ Cytoplasmic changes can activate/deactivate genes.​

●​ Hormones/messengers can:​

○​ Enter the nucleus via nuclear pores.​

○​ Bind to DNA promoters or receptors.​

○​ Turn genes on or off, altering protein synthesis.​

🔸 Selective Communication
●​ Selective chemical communication exists between:​

○​ Nucleus ↔ Cytoplasm (through nuclear pores)​

○​ Cytoplasm ↔ Extracellular fluid (through plasma membrane)​

●​ Nuclear pores + nuclear envelope ensure selectivity.​

●​ These communications may influence gene activity over time.​

✅ Key Summary Table

Control Type Description Example

Direct Control Nucleus directly controls protein Builds cytoskeleton, receptors,

synthesis enzymes

Indirect Nucleus controls enzymes → Boosts glycolysis by

Control regulates metabolism increasing enzymes
 Gene Triggered by cytoplasmic or external Hormone binds DNA → protein
Activation changes synthesis

🚪 Movements Through Cell Membranes

The cell membrane regulates entry and exit of substances using:

Type Energy Use

🔹 ❌ No ATP
Passive

🔸 Active ✅ Requires
ATP

🔹 Passive Cell Mechanisms

Do not require cellular energy (ATP). Rely on concentration gradients (high → low).

1. Diffusion (Simple Diffusion)

●​ Movement: High → Low concentration​

●​ Occurs spontaneously due to kinetic energy​

●​ Influenced by:​

○​ Temperature​

○​ Molecular size​
 ○​ Gradient steepness​

●​ Ends in equilibrium​

✅ Examples:
●​ O₂ (from blood → tissues)​

●​ CO₂ (from tissues → blood)​

✅ Conditions for Diffusion Across Membrane:

●​ Must be:​

○​ Lipid-soluble​

○​ Small enough​

○​ Assisted by carrier/channel​

🔸 Substances:
●​ Gases (O₂, CO₂)​

●​ Fat-soluble vitamins​

2. Facilitated Diffusion (Assisted Diffusion)

●​ Also passive (still down concentration gradient)​

●​ For larger, polar, or charged molecules​

🔹 Types:
Type Description
Carrier-mediated Specific protein changes shape to transport substance (e.g.,
glucose, amino acids)

Channel-mediate Ions/water move through protein-lined aqueous channels (e.g.,

d Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻)

🔒 Channel Types:
●​ Leakage Channels – always open​

●​ Gated Channels – open/close via signals (chemical/electrical)​

❗ Saturation:
●​ When all carriers/channels are full, transport rate maxes out​

✅ Control:
●​ Unlike simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion is controllable by:​

○​ Changing number of carriers/channels​

○​ Altering their activity​

🧪 Membrane Permeability Types

Type Description

Freely permeable All substances pass freely

Selectively Some allowed, others blocked ( ✅ plasma
permeable membrane)

Impermeable Nothing can pass through

Selective permeability depends on:

●​ Molecule size​

●​ Shape​

●​ Electrical charge​

●​ Lipid solubility​

●​ Membrane protein arrangement

💧 Osmosis – Special Type of Diffusion

●​ Definition: Movement of water molecules from high water concentration to low water
concentration across a selectively permeable membrane.​

●​ Key Rule: Water moves towards higher solute concentration (higher osmotic
pressure).​

●​ Result: Achieves equilibrium of water distribution between compartments.​

🧪 Osmotic Pressure
●​ Force generated by osmotic movement of water.​

●​ Water always moves towards greater osmotic pressure (i.e., higher solute
concentration).​

●​ In plant cells, hydrostatic pressure eventually balances osmotic pressure.​

 ●​ In animal cells, lack of rigid wall → swelling or shrinking → potential lysis or crenation.​

🔬 Mechanism of Osmosis
●​ Despite being polar, water passes through the lipid bilayer via:​

○​ Small random gaps in membrane lipids​

○​ Aquaporins (water-specific channels)​

●​ Water moves in single file through aquaporins.​

●​ Present in all cells, especially in RBCs and kidney tubules.​

📊 Osmolarity
●​ Definition: Total concentration of solute particles in a solution.​

●​ Measured in osmoles/L (osmol/L).​

●​ Higher solute concentration = lower water concentration​

●​ 1 osmol = 1 mole of nonionizing molecules​

⚖️ Osmosis in Cell Compartments

●​ Water moves until:​

○​ Osmotic pressure (pulling water in) = Hydrostatic pressure (pushing water

out)​

●​ Membrane permeability to solutes influences the outcome:​

○​ If solute is impermeable, only water moves → volume changes​

 ○​ If both water & solute move, both diffuse down their gradients​

🧪 Tonicity – Functional Effect of Osmosis on Cells

Definition: Ability of a solution to alter cell shape by changing internal water volume.​
Differs from osmolarity – tonicity depends on solute type and membrane permeability.

🌿 Types of Solutions (Tonicity)

Type Solute Effect on Cell Examples
Concentration

Isotonic Same as cell No net water movement; cell 0.9% saline, 5%

normal glucose

Hypertonic Higher than cell Water moves out; cell shrinks Strong saline
(crenation)

Hypotonic Lower than cell Water moves in; cell swells or Distilled water, fruit
lyses juice

🏥 Clinical Applications
●​ Hypertonic IVs: Given to treat edema; draws fluid into blood for kidney removal.​

●​ Hypotonic fluids: Used for mild dehydration (e.g., sports drinks, juices).​

🧠 KEY POINTS for Exams:

●​ Osmosis = Passive​

●​ Water follows solute.​

●​ Aquaporins = protein water channels​

 ●​ Osmotic vs. Hydrostatic Pressure = Balance of water movement​

●​ Tonicity = Determines cell volume change, not just solute concentration.​

🔋 Active Cell Mechanisms

🔹 Definition:
●​ Movement of substances against concentration gradients (from low to high
concentration).​

●​ Requires energy (ATP), usually produced in the mitochondria.​

🧬 Types of Active Cell Mechanisms:

1.​ Active Transport​

2.​ Endocytosis​

3.​ Exocytosis​

1️⃣ Active Transport

✅ Key Features:
●​ Moves particles against concentration gradient.​

●​ Requires:​

○​ ATP​

○​ Carrier proteins (pumps)​

📌 Types of Active Transport:
a) Primary Active Transport

●​ ATP is directly used.​

●​ ATP hydrolysis → Phosphorylation of transport protein → Shape change →

Particle pumped across membrane.​

Examples:

●​ Sodium-Potassium Pump (Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase):​

○​ Pumps 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in.​

○​ Maintains electrochemical gradient, essential for nerve & muscle function.​

●​ Calcium & Hydrogen Pumps:​

○​ Actively pump Ca²⁺ or H⁺ across membranes.​

b) Secondary Active Transport

●​ ATP is not used directly.​

●​ Depends on energy stored in ion gradients created by primary active transport.​

Types:

●​ Symport (co-transport): 2 substances move in same direction (e.g., glucose + Na⁺).​

●​ Antiport (counter-transport): 2 substances move in opposite directions (e.g., Na⁺

in, H⁺ out).​

⚠️ Important Notes:
●​ Carrier proteins in active transport are specific and reversible.​
 ●​ Active transport is used to move:​

○​ Ions: Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, H⁺​

○​ Molecules: Glucose, amino acids​

2️⃣ Vesicular Transport

📦 What is it?
●​ Substances moved in vesicles (membranous sacs).​

●​ Requires ATP (and sometimes GTP).​

🔄 Types of Vesicular Transport:

1.​ Endocytosis – Into the cell​

○​ Phagocytosis: Cell eating (solids)​

○​ Pinocytosis: Cell drinking (liquids)​

○​ Receptor-mediated: Specific uptake using receptors​

2.​ Exocytosis – Out of the cell​

○​ Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane and releases contents (e.g.,

neurotransmitters, hormones)​

3.​ Transcytosis – Movement into, across, and out of a cell​

4.​ Vesicular Trafficking – Movement within cell between organelles​

🧠 Quick Summary Table:

Mechanism Energy? Direction Example
Primary Active ✅ ATP Low → High Na⁺/K⁺ pump, Ca²⁺ pump
Transport

Secondary Active ➖ (uses Low → High Na⁺-Glucose co-transport

gradient)

Endocytosis ✅ ATP Into cell Phagocytosis,

Pinocytosis

Exocytosis ✅ ATP Out of cell Neurotransmitter release

Transcytosis ✅ ATP Into → across → Antibody transport in

out intestine

Vesicular Transport: Endocytosis & Exocytosis

🔹 What is Vesicular Transport?

●​ Uses ATP to move bulk materials without directly crossing the plasma membrane.​

●​ Substances are moved inside vesicles.​

●​ Two main types:​

○​ Endocytosis (into the cell)​

○​ Exocytosis (out of the cell)​

🔄 ENDOCYTOSIS
🔹 Definition:
●​ Process of engulfing extracellular materials into the cell via vesicle formation.​

●​ Vesicles formed are called endosomes.​

●​ Requires ATP.​
🔸 Types of Endocytosis:
1. Phagocytosis – "Cell Eating"

●​ Cell engulfs solid particles.​

●​ Receptors on membrane recognize target → Membrane forms pseudopods →

Engulfs solid → Forms phagosome.​

●​ Phagosome fuses with lysosome → Digestion.​

●​ Indigestible content ejected by exocytosis.​

●​ Performed by phagocytes (e.g., macrophages, WBCs).​

●​ Important for removing bacteria, dead cells, toxins.​

2. Pinocytosis – "Cell Drinking"

●​ Non-selective uptake of extracellular fluid + dissolved substances.​

●​ Small vesicles called pinosomes are formed.​

●​ Occurs continuously in nutrient-absorbing cells (e.g., intestine).​

●​ Membrane is recycled back to surface after vesicle formation.​

3. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

●​ Highly specific, targets materials in small quantities.​

●​ Membrane proteins (usually glycoproteins) act as receptors and bind to specific

ligands.​

●​ Binding causes clathrin-coated pits to form → Vesicle internalized.​

●​ Fuses with lysosome, ligand is processed, receptor is recycled.​

●​ Used to absorb:​
 ○​ Hormones (e.g., insulin)​

○​ Enzymes​

○​ Iron​

○​ Cholesterol (LDL)​

●​ Can be hijacked by viruses (e.g., influenza, cholera).​

🔁 EXOCYTOSIS
🔹 Definition:
●​ Process of secreting materials out of the cell using vesicles.​

●​ ATP-dependent.​

●​ Common for waste removal and secretion.​

🔸 Mechanism:
1.​ Vesicle containing substance (e.g., hormone, neurotransmitter) forms inside the
cell.​

2.​ Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane.​

3.​ Vesicle membrane proteins (v-SNAREs) bind with membrane proteins (t-SNAREs).​

4.​ Membranes fuse via “corkscrew” twist → Vesicle ruptures → Content released
outside.​

5.​ Membrane surface area remains balanced as exocytosis is countered by

endocytosis.​

🔸 Functions:
●​ Hormone secretion (e.g., insulin)​
 ●​ Mucus secretion​

●​ Neurotransmitter release​

●​ Waste disposal​

🧠 Summary Table
Process Direction Target Special Feature Example
Material

Phagocytosis Into cell Solids Uses pseudopods, Macrophages

(bacteria, forms phagosomes eating bacteria
debris)

Pinocytosis Into cell Fluids + Continuous, Intestinal cells

solutes non-selective sampling fluids

Receptor-Me Into cell Specific Uses clathrin-coated Cholesterol, insulin

diated ligands pits + receptors uptake

Exocytosis Out of Waste or SNARE proteins Neurotransmitter

cell secretions mediate membrane release
fusion

🔁 Cell Cycle Overview

●​ Definition: The complete life span of a cell from its formation to its division into
two daughter cells.​

●​ Regulated by: Hormones and growth factors.​

●​ Disruptions can affect body health or lead to diseases (e.g., cancer).​

●​ Most human cells divide ~40–60 times before death.​

📌 Phases of the Cell Cycle

 1.​ Interphase (Preparation for division)​

2.​ Mitosis (Nuclear division)​

3.​ Cytokinesis (Cytoplasmic division)​

4.​ Differentiation (Specialization of cell)​

🧬 1. Interphase (90% of cell’s life)

●​ Not a resting phase – it’s metabolically active.​

●​ Cell grows, performs normal functions, and prepares for mitosis.​

●​ Divided into 3 stages:​

🔹 G1 Phase (Gap 1 – First Growth Phase)

●​ Rapid growth & protein synthesis.​

●​ Organelles (mitochondria, lysosomes, ribosomes) increase.​

●​ Variable duration:​

○​ Rapidly dividing cells: minutes–hours​

○​ Slowly dividing cells: days–years​

●​ Cells that permanently stop dividing enter G0 phase (e.g., neurons, muscle cells).​

●​ Centrioles begin to replicate toward the end.​

🔹 S Phase (Synthesis Phase)

●​ DNA replication occurs → two identical sets of DNA.​
 ●​ Histones synthesized to form new chromatin.​

●​ Key processes:​

○​ Enzymes bind to replication origins.​

○​ DNA unwinds at replication forks.​

○​ Leading strand: synthesized continuously.​

○​ Lagging strand: made in fragments (Okazaki fragments), joined by DNA

ligase.​

○​ Primase forms RNA primers.​

○​ DNA polymerase adds nucleotides and replaces RNA primers.​

●​ Final product: Two identical DNA molecules (one old + one new strand) →
semiconservative replication.​

🔹 G2 Phase (Gap 2 – Final Growth Phase)

●​ Enzymes & proteins required for division are synthesized.​

●​ Centriole replication completes.​

●​ Final checks made before division.​

●​ Cell continues to grow and function normally.​

🧬 DNA Packaging After Replication

●​ New DNA combines with histones → forms chromatin strands.​

●​ Chromatids remain joined by centromere.​

●​ Cohesin protein complex keeps sister chromatids together until anaphase.​

🚨 Cell Cycle Checkpoints
●​ Ensure proper replication and division.​

●​ If DNA damage is detected, the cycle pauses for repair.​

●​ If repair fails → potential for mutation, cellular malfunction, or cancer.​

🧠 Keywords to Remember:
●​ G0 phase: Permanently non-dividing phase.​

●​ DNA replication: Occurs in S phase, includes semiconservative method.​

●​ Centrioles: Start replicating in G1, complete in G2.​

●​ Primase: Lays RNA primer.​

●​ DNA Polymerase: Synthesizes new strands, replaces primers.​

●​ Ligase: Joins Okazaki fragments.​

●​ Cohesin: Binds sister chromatids together.​

🔬 Cell Division
📌 Types:
●​ Meiosis: Occurs in gametes (sperm & egg cells)​
▸ Reduces chromosome number from 46 → 23​
▸ Ensures zygote formed during fertilization has 46 chromosomes​
▸ Occurs in reproductive organs only​

●​ Mitosis: Occurs in somatic (body) cells​

▸ Produces two genetically identical daughter cells​
 ▸ Each daughter cell has the same chromosome number (46) as the parent cell​

🔄 Mitosis (Nuclear Division)

🔹 General Info:
●​ Occurs in all somatic cells except mature cardiac muscle & neurons​

●​ Essential for:​

○​ Growth​

○​ Repair (e.g., connective tissue, liver cells)​

○​ Replacement (e.g., digestive tract lining, bone marrow)​

●​ Controlled by:​

○​ Growth factors (bind to cell receptors, stimulate division)​

○​ Genes: Some promote division; others suppress it​

●​ Uncontrolled mitosis = Neoplasia (tumor/cancer)​

🧬 Stages of Mitosis
1️⃣ Prophase

●​ Chromosomes condense, becoming short & thick​

●​ Each chromosome has 2 identical sister chromatids joined at centromere​

●​ Centrioles move to opposite poles​

●​ Mitotic spindle fibers form​

 ●​ Nuclear membrane disintegrates​

2️⃣ Metaphase

●​ Chromosomes align at the cell equator (metaphase plate)​

●​ Spindle fibers attach to centromeres of chromatids​

●​ Chromatids are still joined, but tension is applied​

3️⃣ Anaphase

●​ Spindle fibers pull chromatids apart​

●​ Separated sister chromatids move to opposite poles​

●​ Once separated, chromatids are again called chromosomes​

4️⃣ Telophase

●​ Chromosomes unwind into chromatin​

●​ Nuclear envelope reforms around each new nucleus​

●​ Nucleoli reappear​

●​ Spindle fibers break down​

💧 Cytokinesis (Cytoplasmic Division)

●​ Begins during anaphase with cleavage furrow forming​
 ●​ Completes in telophase​

●​ Cell membrane constricts and pinches inwards​

●​ Cytoplasm & organelles divide roughly equally​

●​ Results in two daughter cells, genetically identical to the parent​

🧠 Keywords to Remember:
Term Meaning

Mitosis Division of nucleus

Cytokinesis Division of cytoplasm

Centrioles Anchor spindle formation

Chromatid One of two identical strands post-DNA

replication

Centromere Region where chromatids are joined

Spindle fibers Microtubules that pull chromosomes

Growth factors Proteins that signal cells to divide

Neoplasia Abnormal, uncontrolled cell division

🧬 Gametogenesis
●​ Definition: Formation of gametes (sperm in males, ova in females) from germ cells
in the gonads (testes/ovaries)​

●​ Involves meiosis → reduces chromosome number from 46 → 23​

🔹 Spermatogenesis (in males)

📍 Location: Seminiferous tubules of the testes
📍 Duration: ~ 2 months
📍 Continuous process after puberty
👣 Steps:
1.​ Spermatogonia (2n = 46 chromosomes)​

○​ Mitotically divide to form more spermatogonia & primary spermatocytes​

2.​ Primary Spermatocytes (2n = 46)​

○​ Undergo Meiosis I​

○​ Form 2 Secondary Spermatocytes (n = 23)​

3.​ Secondary Spermatocytes (n = 23)​

○​ Undergo Meiosis II​

○​ Form 4 Spermatids (n = 23)​

4.​ Spermatids​

○​ Mature into sperm (spermatozoa) through process of spermiogenesis​

✅ End result: From 1 spermatogonium, 4 functional sperm cells are formed​

✅ Each sperm has 23 chromosomes

🔸 Oogenesis (in females)

📍 Location: Ovaries
📍 Begins: Before birth, but completed after puberty and fertilization
👣 Steps:
1.​ Oogonia (2n = 46)​

○​ Multiply by mitosis in fetal life​

○​ Differentiate into primary oocytes​

2.​ Primary Oocytes (2n = 46)​

○​ Begin Meiosis I but arrest in Prophase I​

○​ Surrounded by granulosa (follicular) cells → form primary follicles​

○​ Up to 500,000 primary follicles remain at puberty​

○​ Numbers decline with age; very few remain by menopause​

3.​ After Puberty:​

○​ In each cycle, a few primary follicles start maturing​

○​ Usually, only one oocyte is ovulated​

4.​ Just before ovulation:​

○​ Primary oocyte completes Meiosis I​

○​ Forms:​

■​ Secondary oocyte (n = 23) — receives most cytoplasm​

■​ First polar body — receives little cytoplasm, eventually disintegrates​

5.​ Secondary Oocyte:​

○​ Begins Meiosis II but stops at Metaphase II​

○​ Only completes Meiosis II if fertilized​

○​ Forms:​

■​ Mature ovum (n = 23)​

■​ Second polar body (discarded)​

✅ End result: From 1 oogonium, 1 functional ovum + 3 polar bodies (nonfunctional)​
✅ Mature ovum has 23 chromosomes

🧠 Hormonal Control
Hormone Function

FSH (Follicle Stimulating Stimulates growth of

Hormone) follicles

LH (Luteinizing Hormone) Triggers ovulation

🗝️ Key Differences: Spermatogenesis vs Oogenesis

Feature Spermatogenesi Oogenesis
s

Location Testes Ovaries

Timing Begins at Begins before birth

puberty

Gametes from 1 stem 4 sperm 1 ovum + 3 polar bodies

cell

Continuous? Yes Cyclic (monthly)

Complete meiosis? Always Only if fertilization

occurs

Cytoplasm distribution Equal Unequal

🧬 Meiosis
📍 Definition:
●​ A special type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half (from
diploid 2n to haploid n)​
 ●​ Occurs only in gametes (sperm & ova)​

●​ Results in 4 non-identical daughter cells​

●​ Allows for genetic diversity through crossing over and independent assortment​

🔁 Purpose of Meiosis
●​ Produces gametes for sexual reproduction​

●​ Maintains chromosome number across generations​

●​ Introduces genetic variation​

🔹 Overall Meiosis Steps

●​ Involves two successive divisions:​

1.​ Meiosis I (Reductional division)​

2.​ Meiosis II (Equational division)​

✳️ Meiosis I – Reductional Division

🎯 Main Goal: Reduces chromosome number from 2n → n
🔄 Steps:
🔹 Prophase I:
●​ Chromosomes duplicate → each has 2 chromatids​

●​ Homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis)​

 ●​ Crossing over occurs → exchange of genetic material​

○​ Forms chiasmata (points of crossover)​

○​ Promotes genetic recombination​

●​ In females, X chromosomes synapse like autosomes​

●​ In males, X and Y synapse end-to-end but do not exchange segments​

🔹 Metaphase I:
●​ Homologous pairs line up at equatorial plane​

●​ Random assortment occurs (contributes to variation)​

🔹 Anaphase I:
●​ Homologous chromosomes (not chromatids) separate​

●​ Move to opposite poles​

●​ Each still consists of 2 chromatids​

🔹 Telophase I:
●​ Two daughter cells form​

●​ Each contains haploid (n) number of chromosomes​

●​ Genetically different from the parent due to crossing over​

✳️ Meiosis II – Equational Division

🎯 Main Goal: Separation of chromatids
🔄 Steps:
🔹 Prophase II:
 ●​ No new DNA replication​

●​ Chromosomes condense again in both haploid cells​

🔹 Metaphase II:
●​ Chromosomes align at equator​

🔹 Anaphase II:
●​ Sister chromatids finally separate​

●​ Move to opposite poles​

🔹 Telophase II:
●​ Two more daughter cells form from each of the 2 previous cells​

●​ Total = 4 haploid cells, each with n chromosomes​

🧠 Key Points
Feature Meiosis I Meiosis II

Type of Division Reductional Equational

Synapsis & Crossing Yes No

Over

Separation Homologous Sister chromatids

chromosomes

Chromosome Number 2n → n n remains n

Result 2 haploid cells 4 haploid cells

total

🌱 Genetic Significance
 ●​ Crossing over → New combinations of maternal & paternal genes​

●​ Independent assortment → Random alignment of homologous pairs​

●​ Results in genetically unique gametes​

🌱 Differentiation
📍 Definition:
●​ Differentiation is the process by which unspecialized cells become specialized in
structure and function.​

●​ It allows cells to perform specific roles in the body.​

🧬 Purpose of Differentiation
●​ To form specialized tissues and organs.​

●​ Essential for:​

○​ Growth​

○​ Tissue repair​

○​ Normal development​

🔄 Cell Lineage
🔹 Stem Cells
●​ Unspecialized cells capable of continuous division.​

●​ Can give rise to:​

 ○​ Two identical daughter stem cells​

○​ Or, one stem cell + one progenitor cell (partially specialized)​

🔹 Progenitor Cells
●​ Partially specialized cells derived from stem cells.​

●​ Can differentiate into one or more specific types of cells, but cannot divide
indefinitely like stem cells.​

🧠 Key Points
●​ All differentiated cells in the body originate from stem and progenitor cells.​

●​ Differentiation depends on:​

○​ Selective gene activation: Different genes are turned on/off in different

cells.​

○​ All body cells contain the same DNA, but only specific parts are expressed
depending on cell type.​

🧪 Future Potential of Stem Cells

●​ Stem cells found in embryos, fetuses, and even adult organs (like bone marrow,
brain, liver) may be used for:​

○​ Regenerative medicine​

○​ Tissue engineering​

○​ Healing damaged organs​

🔑 Summary:
Term Definition

Stem Cells Undifferentiated cells that can self-renew or differentiate

Progenitor Partially specialized cells derived from stem cells

Cells

Differentiation Specialization process where a cell becomes

function-specific

🧬 Cell Division and Cancer

📌 Normal Cell Regulation
●​ Normally, cell division = cell death, maintaining tissue size.​

●​ When cell division > cell death, tissues enlarge → may lead to tumors
(neoplasms).​

🌱 Types of Tumors
Tumor Type Description

Benign Tumor Non-invasive; remains within epithelium or connective tissue

capsule; not life-threatening; usually surgically removable.

Malignant Invades surrounding tissues (invasion); spreads via metastasis

Tumor (formation of secondary tumors); difficult to control.

🔄 Metastasis
●​ Primary tumor → malignant cells break off → enter blood or lymphatic vessels →
travel to new organs → form secondary tumors.​

●​ New blood vessels grow to supply tumors (angiogenesis), accelerating cancer

spread.​
🧪 Causes of Cancer
●​ Cancer begins from one abnormal cell → uncontrolled division → tumor.​

●​ Most cancers originate in somatic cells.​

●​ Caused by mutations, due to:​

○​ DNA replication errors​

○​ Radiation​

○​ Carcinogens (chemicals, toxins)​

○​ Viruses​

🧬 Gene-Level Mutations
Gene Type Function Effect When Mutated

Proto-oncogenes Promote normal cell division Become oncogenes,

overstimulate division

Oncogenes Mutated genes promoting Lead to uncontrolled division

abnormal growth

Tumor suppressor Slow/stop cell division Lose function → cells divide

genes uncontrollably

⚠️ Cancer Development Highlights

●​ Cancer occurs most in tissues with frequent cell division (e.g., epithelial cells).​

●​ More mutations = higher cancer risk, hence increased cancer incidence with age.​

●​ Cancer cells:​

○​ Change shape​
 ○​ Resemble normal cells less and less​

○​ Compete with normal cells for space and nutrients​

○​ Cause organ dysfunction and weight loss​

○​ Can cause death if vital tissues are affected​

🛡️ Body’s Defense Against Cancer

1.​ DNA Repair Enzymes:​

○​ Detect and correct replication errors​

○​ Mutations in these enzymes reduce defense​

2.​ Apoptosis:​

○​ Programmed cell death of abnormal cells​

○​ Prevents cancer development​

○​ If apoptosis genes are mutated → damaged cells survive & divide​

💉 Cancer Treatment Methods

●​ Surgery: Removal of tumor​

●​ Radiation (X-rays, lasers): Destroys cancerous tissue​

●​ Chemotherapy: Drugs that kill dividing cells​

⚠️ Side Effects:
●​ Affects normal rapidly-dividing cells, e.g.:​

○​ Bone marrow → leads to anemia​

 ○​ Hair follicles → hair loss​

○​ Digestive tract → nausea, poor immunity​

🧠 Quick Recap Table:

Term Definition

Neoplasm (Tumor) Abnormal tissue growth

Metastasis Spread of cancer cells to new areas

Oncogene Mutated gene promoting abnormal growth

Tumor suppressor Gene that prevents uncontrolled growth

gene

Apoptosis Programmed cell death

Angiogenesis Formation of new blood vessels for tumor

supply