About Myself

• Names: Musa Ibrahim Kurawa

• Qualifications
• PhD Neuroscience and Addiction Studies,(lab. Work) TUMS,
Tehran, Iran
• PhD Human Physiology, A,B,U. Zaria, Kaduna, Nigeria
• M.Sc. Human Physiology, A,B,U. Zaria, Kaduna, Nigeria
• Medicine Bachelor, Bachelor of Surgery (M.B.B.S.)
• Advanced Course in Telemedicine and Medical Informatics,
CDAC, Mohali, India
• Advance Diploma in Legal Studies (ADLS), B.U.K. Kano, Nigeria
• Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE), B.U.K. Kano, Nigeria
• Higher Professional Diploma in Computer Studies (HPDSC),
B.U.K. Kano, Nigeria
• Email Address: [email protected]
• Website: www.mikurawa.com.ng
• Phone Number: 08034280587
THE CELL

Prepared by
mikurawa
 Outline
• Introduction
• General Characteristics of cell
• Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
• Basic Structure of Cell
• Internal organization of a cell
• Cell components & their functions
• Cytoskeleton
• Cell surface Specialization
• Basement membrane
• Lateral surface specializations
• Apical (free) surface specializations
 Introduction
• Both living & non-living things are composed of molecules.
• Molecules are made from chemical elements like Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, & Nitrogen.
• The organization of these molecules into cell differentiates
living things from all other matter.
• The Cell is therefore the smallest unit of matter that can carry
on all the processes of life.
• B4 the C17th, no one new that cell existed.
• The invention of the microscope enabled Robert Hooke,
(1665) & Anton van leunwenhoek (1675) to observe & draw
the first “cells”
• Cell theory (1855)
• All living things are made of cells
• Cells are the basic units of structure & function
• Cells arises only from the replication of existing cells.
General Characteristics of Cells

• Require nutrition & oxygen

• Produces its own energy for repair, growth & other activities.
• Eliminates CO2 & other metabolic waste.
• Maintain homeostasis of its internal environment.
• Protect itself from toxic/ pathogenic attack.
• Reproduces via cell division.
Eukaryotes

• Bcos of the complexity of Eukaryotic cells, there is

no typical Eukaryotic cell.
• Cell Diversity: all cells differ in size, shape, & internal
organization.
• Cell size
• Only very few cells in the body are large (ovum)
• Most cells are small because,
• The cell’s nucleus can only control a certain
volume of active cytoplasm
• Cells are limited by their surface area to
volume ratio.
• Cell shape- cells come in variety of shapes to suit
their functions.
Internal organization of a cell

• Cells are made up of internal structures called

organelles.
• Every organelle performs a specific function in that cell.
• Because of differences in functions, certain features in
cells are common while others are specific.
• The entire cell & some organelles are surrounded by a
thin plasma membrane.
• These membranes are fluid mosaics, can therefore
transport substances across.
 Cell components

• Cell membrane
• Cytoplasm: Cytosol + Organelles
• Organelles
1. Endoplasmic reticululm
2. Golgi Apparatus
3. Lysosomes
4. Peroxisomes
5. Centrosome & Centrioles
6. Secretory Vesicles
7. Mitochondrion
8. Ribosomes
9. Cytoskeleton
• Nucleus
 Cell Membrane
• This is a complex barrier separating the cell from its external
environment.
• It is “selectively permeable”
• Is a fluid mosaic of proteins floating in a phospholipid bilayer.
• Is made up of phospholipid head attached to two fatty acid tails,
proteins & cholesterol.
• Surround the cells & enclose organelles.
• Functions of CM
1. Protection
2. Selective permeability
3. Absorption
4. Excretion of waste
5. Exchange of gases
6. Maintain shape & size of cells
Polarity of cell membrane
 Lipid Layer
• Major lipids
1. Phospholipids
2. Glycolipids: lipid + sugar.
3. Cholesterol
• Phospholipids
1. Phosphoglycerides: glycerole + >1F.A. +Phosphate grp +
Alcohol (choline/serine/inositol)
2. Sphingoplipids: sphingocine + 1F.A. + Phosphate grp + Alcohol
• They are amphipathic molecules (have polar & nonpolar sides) &
separates the 2 aqueous environments
• Glycolipid: (similar to sphingolipids bcos of sphingocine), eg
cerebroside.
• Cholesterol: predominantly in eukaryotic cells, responsible for the
structural integrity of the cell membrane.
• Function: semi permeable membrane, allowing fat soluble
substances like O2, CO2, & alcohol.
Lipid bilayer
 Membrane Proteins
• They are mainly glycoproteins (carbohydrate + proteins)
• Lipid:protein
• Myelinated neuron (4:1)
• Mitochondria (1:4)
• Glycoproteins:
1. Integral proteins/ transmembrane proteins:
1. Tightly bound to CM
2. Pass through the entire cm
3. e.g. cell adhesion, cell junction, carrier, channel proteins,
hormone receptors, antigens & enzymes.
2. Peripheral proteins:
1. Attached loosely to the outer/inner surface of cm through
integral proteins/ lipid layer.
2. Do not pass through the entire cm, therefore easily mobile
3. E.g. cytoskeletal proteins, enzymes, and carrier proteins.
• Functions of Membrane proteins

1. Act as receptors for hormones & neurotransmitters

2. For structural integrity of the cell
3. As enzymes for the control of metabolic/ chemical
reactions
4. Act as cell recognition proteins.
5. Act as antigens
6. As carrier proteins: active & passive transport
7. Serve as channel proteins: transport of H2O & water
soluble substances like glucose & electrolytes.
8. As pumps for transport of ions
9. Act as cell adhesion molecules
 Cytoplasm
• Jelly-like
• 80% water
• Cytosol: clear fluid portion
• Dissolved particles: proteins, carbohydrate, lipids &
electrolytes.
• Organelles:
• cellular structures found in cytoplasm
• E.g. Endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, centrosome & centrioles, secretory
vesicles, mitochondria, nucleus.
• Zones:
• Ectoplasm: found at periphery, just beneath CM
• Endoplasm: inner part of cytoplasm
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Forms of ER: Rough and Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
• Lumen contain endoplasmic matrix
• Depending on the activity of the cell, RER &SER switched interchangeably.
• RER:
• Single, lipid bilayer continuous with the outer nuclear membrane.
• Organized into stacks of large flattened sacs (cisternae) which are studded with
ribosomes.
• RER synthesizes proteins that are destined for secretions (golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, etc)
• It brakes down worn-out organelles.
• SER:
• Network of membranous sacs, vesicles, & tubules continuous with the RER
• It lacks ribosomes.
• Involved in the biosynthesis of nonprotein substances (phospholipids, Tgs., &
sterols).
• Contain enzymes for other cellular metabolic processes
• Storage & metabolism of calcium.
• Catabolism & detoxification of toxic substances
 Golgi Apparatus

• 5-8 Stacks of disc-shaped smooth cisternae.

• Faces:
• The cis (forming) face- assoc. with RER.
• The trans (maturing) face- assoc. with the plasma
membrane.
• Functions-
• Site of post-translational modification & sorting of
newly synthesized proteins & lipids.
• Site of further modification of CHO moiety of
glycoproteins.
• Site for packaging, labelling, transport & delivery of
materials.
 Lysosomes
• Thick, spherical membrane-enclosed organelles pinched off from golgi
apparatus.
• Contain ≈50 hydrolytic enzymes for intracellular digestion.
• Forms:
• 1o lysosomes: inactive, not attached to phagosome/ endosome.
• 2o lysosomes: fused with phagosome/ endosome & become activated.
• Functions: degrade proteins, lipids, polysaccharides & nucleic acids
through proteases, lipases, amylases, & nucleases respectively.
• Mechanism:
• Heterophagy: digestion of engulfed extracellular material.
• Autophagy: digestion of worn-out intracellular organelle.
• Specific functions
1. Degradation of macromolecules
2. Degradation of worn out organelles
3. Removal of excess secretory products
4. Secretory functions
 Peroxisomes

• They are heterogeneous group of small, spherical organelles with a

single membrane.
• Formed from ER.
• Functions
1. Contain oxidases for catabolism of long-chain F.A.s, branched
F.As, D-aa, & polyamines.
2. Contain catalase that degrades H2O2 to H2O & O2.
3. Biosynthesis of plasmalogens (subclass of ether phospholipids
found in the cell membranes of nervous, immune &
cardiovascular systems)
4. Highly functional in liver & kidney for detoxification of
xenobiotics.
5. Play roles in the formation of myelin & bile acids.
 Mitochondria
• Have their own double-stranded circular DNA, Ribosomes & make
most of their own proteins. Therefore, capable of reproducing
itself.
• The nature of their DNA, Ribosomes & binary fission resemble that
of prokaryotes.
• Outer membrane
• It is smooth, continuous & highly permeable
• Contain abundant porin (<10 kD)
• Inner membrane
• Impermeable to most small ions (Na+, K+, H+) & molecules
(ATP,ADP, pyruvate)
• Contain high lipid cardiolipin.
• Have numerous cristae containing enzymes for electron
transport chain & oxidative phosphorylation.
• The No. of mitochondria & that of cristae/ mitochondria are
proportional to the metabolic activity of the cell.
• Intermembrane compartment- contains enzymes that use ATP
to phosphorylate other nucleotides.

• Matrix is enclosed in the inner membrane & contains-

• Dehydrogenases
• Double-stranded circular DNA genome
• RNA, proteins, & ribosomes
• Intramitochondrial granules

• Functions
1. Production of energy in form of ATP
2. Synthesis of ATP
3. Helps in the process of Apoptosis
4. Storage of calcium
5. Detoxification of ammonia in the liver.
 Ribosomes

• Are composed of rRNA (65%) & protein (35%).

• Responsible for the synthesis of proteins by translating the
nucleotide sequences.
• Consist of large 60s & small 40s subunits (s=Svedberg unit
for expressing sedimentation coefficient)

• Forms of ribosomes
• Free polysomes- site of synth. Nuclear, mitochondrial &
hemoglobin proteins.
• Membrane-associated polysomes- site of synth. Of
secretory proteins, membrane proteins, & lysosomal
proteins, enzymes & hormones.
• Types of RNA molecules
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA): carries the genetic
information to the ribosome
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): a constituent of the ribosome
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA): collect & bring the proper aa to
the ribosome for protein synthesis

• Protein Synthesis
• The small & large subunits fuse to form ribosome before
translation.
• Stages Translation
1. Initiation: precursor mRNA transferred to cytoplasm &
attached to the small subunit of ribosome.
2. Elongation
3. Termination
Polyribosomes
 Nucleus
• Site for DNA replication & transcription.
• It’s the largest & most prominent organelle (10-20µ)
• It is enclosed by nuclear envelop.
• Major components: nucleoplasm, nucleolus & chromatin.
• Most cells are uninucleated & some are multinucleated
• Nuclear Membrane
• double layered & porous.
• The outer layer is continuous with ER & the space between is also
continuous with the lumen of ER.
• Nucleoplasm
• highly viscous fluid found in the nucleus which surrounds
chromatin & nucleolus.
• Made up of fibrillary network of proteins (nuclear matrix)
containing nucleotides & enzymes.
• Functions of Nucleus
1. Control of all cell activities.
2. Synthesis of RNA
3. Formation of subunits of ribosomes
4. Transfer of genetic code through mRNA for protein
synthesis.
5. Control of cell division.
6. Storage of hereditary information as genes.

• Nuclear Lamina
• lattice like network of proteins (eg lamins).
• Lamins attach chromatin to the inner membrane of NE.
• Participate in the breakdown & reformation of the NE.
• Pulls nucleus back together during telophase.
Nucleolus
• Small, spherical, granular structure found within the
nucleus.
• responsible for rRNA synthesis & ribosome
assembly.
• Has 3 morphologically distinct zones
• Granular zone: at the periphery, containing
ribosomal precursor particles.
• Fibrillar zone: centrally, contains ribonuclear
protein fibrils.
• Fibrillar center: contains DNA that is not being
transcribed.
 Chromatin
• Is a complex of DNA, histone & nonhistone proteins.
• Types
• Heterochromatin- very e-dense (not active), &
basophilic
• Euchromatin- very light staining (active)
• DNA: double-stranded helical molecule that carries the
genetic information of the cell. It exist in 3
conformations; B DNA, Z DNA, & A DNA.
• Histone proteins: +vely charged prot. Enriched with
lysine & arginine residues. Important in the formation
of chromatin structures (nucleosomes).
• Nonhistone proteins: include enz. Involved in nuclear
functions. They are acidic/ neutral prot.
 Cytoskeleton
• They are scaffolding of proteins that transport, position & move
organelles. They maintain & change cell shape & organize organelles
into functional associations.
• Provides a supportive network of tubules & filaments in the
cytoplasm.
• They are microtubules, intermediate filaments & microfilaments.
• Microtubules
• They are polymers of tubulin that undergo rapid assembly &
disassembly.
• They are found in the cytoplasmic matrix of all eukaryotic cells.
• Tubulin
• Is a protein dimer composed of two different polypeptides, α-
tubulin & β-tubulin.
• Tubulin polymerizes to form microtubules with the help of
accessory proteins (tau & microtubule-associated proteins)
• Calcium ions can block/ reverse polymerization.
• Functions of Microtubules
• Determines the shape & structure of the cell
• Forms the spindle fibers for chromosomal movement during
meiosis & mitosis
• Intracellular vesicle & organelle transport within the cell
• Are responsible for the movement of centriole, cilia & flagella.

• Intermediate filaments
• They are intermediate btw. Microtubules & microfilaments.
• They function primarily in structural roles.
• They have several tissue specific prot. Such as cytokeratins
(epithelium), Desmin (muscles), vimentin (mesenchymal cells),
Neurofilaments (neurons) & Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFA)
(astrocytes).
• Functions of intermediate filaments
• Maintain the shape of cell
• Connect adjacent cells through desmosomes
• Microfilaments
• They are long fine thrad-like structures composed of actin & myosin.
• Found throughout the cytoplasm.
• Functions of Microfilaments
• Responsible for structural strength & resistance against tearing forces.
• Responsible for cellular movements like contractions, gliding, & cell
division.

• Centrosome & Centrioles

• Is a microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of eukaryotic cells
• Found only in animal eukaryotic cells.
• Contain a pair of centrioles oriented at 900 to one another beside nucleus.
• Functions
1. Helps in the movement of chromosomes during cell division
2. Helps organize, create and extend microtubules.
3. Responsible for the formation of flagella & cilia in cells.
• Types of centrioles: mother & daughter centrioles
 Cell Surface Specialization & Interactions
• Basal surface: Basement membrane
• Apical Surface: microvilli, cilia, flagella, etc.
• Lateral surfaces: cell-cell junctions

• Basal Surface
• Basement membrane (BM): Is a sheet like structure that underlies virtually all
epithelia.
• BM consist of
• Basal lamina: made up of type IV collagen, glycoproteins (eg laminin), & proteoglycans
(eg heparan sulfate)
• Reticular lamina: composed of delicate reticular fibers.
• Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are proteins responsible for adhesion of cell
to their neighbors/ basal lamina.
• Types of CAMs
1. Cadherins
2. Integrins
3. IgG
4. Selectins,
 Lateral surface specializations
• Types of Cell Junctions
1. Occluding junctions: e.g. zonular occludens
2. Anchoring junctions: zonular adherence, desmosomes, etc.
3. Communicating junctions: e.g. gap junctions & chemical synapses
• Zonular Occludens (tight junction)
• Formed by fusion of the opposed cell membranes
• May allow selective permeability between the cells.
• It extends around the apical cell borders
• It completely seal the underlying intercellular clefts & prevent lateral
transport.
• Provides strength, stability, maintain cell polarity & create special
physiological barriers.
• Zonular Adherens
• It is a band like junction that serves in the attachment of adjacent
epithelial cell
• Often lies basal to zonula occludens, e.g. cardiac muscle.
• Desmosomes (macula adherens)
• Formed by juxtaposition of two disc-shaped plaques contained
within the cytoplasm of each adjacent cell.
• Intermediate filaments (tonofilaments)- they radiate out from the
plaques & anchored by desmoplakins
• Desmosomes- are most common in lining membranes that are
subject to wear & tear, & are considered spot welds that hold the
cells 2gather (e.g. skin).

• Gap junctions
• This is an area of communication btw adjacent cells.
• It allows passage of very small particles & ions (1.5-3nm).
• Formed by tubular protein subunits called connexins.
• The diameter of the channels can be regulated by Ca, pH,
electrical potential, hormones & neurotransmitters.
• It allows conduction of electric impulses.
 Apical (free) surface specialization
• Microvilli
• They are apical cell surface evaginations of cell membranes
• They increase cell surface area for absorption
• A thick glycocalyx coat covers them.
• The core of each microvillus contain actin microfilaments.

• Cilia
• Cilia are apical cell surface projections of cell membrane that
contain microtubules
• They are inserted on centriole-like basal bodies present below
the membrane surface
• It contain two central microtubules surrounded by a circle of nine
peripheral microtubule doublets (α & β subunits).
• Cilia moves back & forth to propel fluid and particles in one
direction
• They are important in clearing mucus from the respiratory tract.
Thank
U
for
listening