Learning from Built Environment of Hill Region of

Uttarakhand, India and its Response to Disaster Risk

Nayana R. Singh Gaurav Singh

Assistant Professor, Architecture Department Assistant Professor, Architecture Department
School of Planning and Architecture School of Planning and Architecture
Bhopal, India Bhopal, India
[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract—Traditional knowledge system embedded in the built the modern science and technology for popularization and
heritage have very deep relationship of the built form with its acceptability by masses, to bring sustainability and strengthen
setting, the scale of settlement and individual building as well as the development process of a region. Traditional practices can
that of the building elements and their component. The natural make a significant contribution to sustainable development
diverse environment, climatic conditions, socio-cultural and
and allow a sustainable future for all.
economic aspects enabled the inhabitants to modify and adapt
the same in their built environments. The built environment of
the hill regions of Uttarakhand is sustaining itself for centuries At the time of earthquake in Kutch in 2001, it was noted
with the harsh natural conditions and responded well during the that when skyscrapers made of cement and steel felled, but
various disasters which hit the region and also developed disaster Bhungas- traditional hut made up of locally available materials
resilient buildings. This paper is an attempt to understand the stood strong. Similarly the heritage buildings in the old city
built environment with the help of pilot studies of the rural areas Ahmedabad were merely affected by the impact of earthquake.
of the Uttarakhand region. It is based on exhaustive studies from The houses and buildings with traditional construction
regional level to a habitable space. Various surveys were techniques were intact during the earthquake in Kashmir in
conducted which included socio-cultural and economic survey to
2005. The survival during the flood in Bihar, 2008 was the
understand community profile, spatial survey to assess the
historic built fabric. Community feedback was taken to know bamboo constructed structure, which could sustain the
their view on the built heritage constructed by their ancestors’ pressure of water. The flash-flood, landslide and cloudburst at
experiences and skills. The Data was collected through both Kedarnath valley in 2013, could not hamper the old stone
formal and informal interviews and group discussions held with masonry structure of the temple. All these examples raise the
the elderly in Uttarkashi region of Uttarakhand, hence research inquiry in traditional knowledge system and the built
qualitative research approach was used. The various data environments “Fig.1”.
collected helped in formulating the framework of guidelines for
reducing disaster risk using traditional knowledge system by
amalgamating it with today’s societal needs to produce disaster
safe and comfortable habitats.

Keywords- Built environment, Hill settlement, Traditional

knowledge system, Disaster risk reduction

I. INTRODUCTION
Traditional knowledge is gained over centuries, transmitted Bhungas of Gujarat Kashmir Valley Structures
orally from generation to generation and most often is linked
to their culture, experiences and skills. The challenges put
forth by climatic and physiographic conditions make human
survival by adapting the environmental situations and coping
with it. The amalgamation of natural diverse environment, the
climatic conditions, socio-cultural and economic scenario gave
a model of sustainability to its habitats. This transfer of
knowledge and understanding from generation to generation is
very well communicated through their built forms and Kedarnath during Flash Floods Bamboo Structures of Bihar
environment right from the selection of the site to the
habitable spaces. These learning which can be dovetail with Figure 1. Various traditional buildings which survived during disaster
 Various International forums addressing the vulnerability to emerged with the advent of new migrants (mostly Rajputs)
Disaster played a vital role in supporting the argument. On from the plains of Indian subcontinent, when they fled due to
December 11, 1987, the UN General Assembly declared the Muslim invasions during 14th century and afterward. Various
1990s as the “International Decade for Natural Disaster earthquake resistant and safe architectural traditions emerged
Reduction” (IDNDR). It was followed up with the as a cultural response to the challenges in different eco-niches.
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) in Their built spaces responded to their socio-cultural and
1990 to build “Disaster Resilient Communities” by promoting economic factor as they themselves were the creator of the
increased awareness of the importance of disaster reduction as spaces for their own use and comfort. Rituals, belief, customs,
an integral component of sustainable development. In May social structure, economic status and culture are reflected in
1994, UN member states met at the World Conference on built forms, scale, proportion, size, colour, material and
Natural Disaster Reduction in Yokohama, Japan, to assess the aesthetic values.
progress attained by the IDNDR. At this meeting they
developed the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a
Safer World which addresses disaster risks in the context of
sustainable development and in building resilience through
enhanced national and local capabilities to manage and reduce
risk. Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on
Sustainable Development, Johannesburg address an integrated,
multi-hazard, inclusive approach to address vulnerability, risk
assessment and disaster management, an essential element of a
safer world in the twenty -first century. It also Encourage the
dissemination and use of traditional and indigenous
knowledge to mitigate the impact of disasters and promote
community -based disaster management planning. Hyogo
Framework for Action 2005-2015, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
focused on “Building the Resilience of Nations and
Communities to Disaster”. Toward A Post-2015 Framework
for Disaster Risk Reduction, UNISDR requested to “prepare
periodic reviews on progress towards achieving its objectives
and priorities”. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015-2030 calls for a historic shift from an
emphasis on disaster management to address disaster risk
management. It also focused on to prevent new risk, reduce
existing risk and strengthen societal and environmental
resilience through the local knowledge.

II. THE STUDY AREA

Uttarakhand being in the Middle Himalayan region has
discontinued ranges and is under continuous variable
geological and physiographic changes “Fig. 2”. It lies in the Figure 2. Location of Uttarakhand
seismic zones IV and V of the Earthquake Risk Map of India
“Fig. 3”. The harsh and adverse climatic conditions and
exposure to multiple natural hazards, made the people to live,
evolve and develop their built environment in accordance with
the nature rather than fighting with it. The architecture of this
region developed by the people and for the people, with their
own requirements, skills and experiences which they have
learned, modified, developed and refined over the centuries.
The buildings were built without any technical or professional
training with the help of available natural and environmental
friendly materials and construction techniques (Kumar &
Pushplata, 2013). Middle Himalayas of Garhwal and Kumaun
regions were under the influence of Hinduism since very old
time as there are many references of these areas in Puranas
and other ancient Hindu literature. However, more stable
residential villages, with comparatively intensive farming,
Figure 3. Earthquake risk map of Uttarakhand
 III. OBJECTIVE AND RELEVANCE OF THE RESEARCH developed usually on the southern slopes of the hill which
Traditional practices, cultural pattern and local knowhow protected them from the cold northern winds and provided
tell a glorious story of human survival and sustainability abundant sunlight and heat gain through the day. In winters
against most challenging environment. The Hill region of there is less accumulation of snow due to the direct heat gain
Uttarakhand being a multi-hazard prone area is very much and solar exposure in the southern side. In summer due to the
challenging for the settlement and has rich traditional melting of the snow the fresh water is abundantly available
knowledge developed through ages to sustain various physical for the inhabitant and for agriculture. At the time of monsoon,
and geological aspects. The aim of this research is to bring out when the rainfall is heavy the steep slope allow the water to
the learning from the traditional built environment and to flow to the foothill and it prevent the settlement from
dovetail it with the contemporary practices for the hydrological hazards.
sustainability and to reduce disaster risk in the hill region of
Uttarakhand, India.

The specific objectives of the research are following:

• To know and understand the hill region of Uttarakhand

and its settlement pattern.

• To understand the various forms of built environment and

spatial development of rural areas with respect to socio-
cultural and climatic adaptation in Uttarakhand.

• To explore various elements of sustainability used in

traditional practices in various villages of Uttarakhand
and its relevance in reducing the disaster risk.

This research is based on the qualitative approach, which

has been carried out with the help of extensive pilot studies in
the rural areas of Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand. The rural areas Figure 4. A Ridge Settlement at Uttarakhand
were selected as the traditional practices are more commonly
seen adopted in these areas compared to urban areas. The B. Valley Settlement
requirements of the people have changed or developed with The valley settlements “Fig. 5” developed near the water
the fourth dimension Time. The traditional practices in built source as river and lakes. The important buildings are located
environment and its construction techniques should be adopted at the highest altitude in that area. These settlements happen
with context to the contemporary requirement which should mostly for the purpose of agriculture near the water source.
address the Disaster Risk Reduction, which is very well The farmlands are located next to the water sources, so that
communicated and accepted at the international, national and the water can be easily brought to the agriculture land, but the
local forums. habitable spaces are spread over the larger area. This way the
inhabitants place themselves safe from the possibility of
floods. The crop which is cultivated is generally rice which
IV. TYPES OF SETTLEMENT requires more water. These settlements are usually scattered
Early human beings led a very simple life with minimum as the houses are located near the farmlands.
demands and were dependent on nature for their basic needs-
food, clothing and shelter. They have learnt from the nature
and evolution of the settlement pattern happened with the
passage of time. Settlements in hill regions are classified into
three categories as ridge, midland and valley settlement
(Kumar & Pushplata, 2013). Over the ages it has been
observed that the important buildings like public buildings,
temples and palace are often the main focus of the settlement
as it developed around these buildings in any of these
categories.

A. Ridge Settlement
In ridge settlement “Fig. 4”, the important buildings are
placed at the highest location and then the houses are located
on the slopes and relatively lower areas. These settlements
Figure 5. A Valley Settlement at Uttarakhand
C. Midland Settlement layout with detached houses, it is also observed that the due
The midland is generally being most preferred location consideration to the context is given and buildings are
for settlement and is used for agriculture and grazing of cattle generally constructed along the contours to reduce the cutting
“Fig. 6”. The site which has a ridge with adjacent valley, and filling of slopes. The natural drains, ridges and slopes are
which is marked by a narrow flat piece of high ground with respected and water retention points are made downstream
low lying slopes around its periphery, i.e., relatively flat and along these slopes and drains so that they have enough water
allows for flexibility to built form. The settlements can spread during the dry months. The flat parcels of land are taken for
in all directions resulting in polygonal profile. The developing their settlements. The houses are clustered along
settlements have developed majorly on the available flat land the open space which is used for carrying out the daily chores,
and along the contours. The public buildings are located near having various different social and cultural activities.
the access road and then houses are spread around it.
VI. FIELD OBSERVATION
The concerns for the physical planning of the settlements
was more clearly observed on reaching the rural areas falling
in the valleys of river Yamuna and river Bhagirathi of
Garhwal region of Uttarakhand. Detailed investigations were
carried out in the area north of the Barkot, an important town
from where the road get diverted to Yamnotri and Gangotri ,
major pilgrimage centers and starting point of two most
important rivers of India Yamuna and Ganga respectively.

The villages Dakhiyantgaon, Koti Banal “Fig. 8”, Gair,

Rajgarhi, Dharali “Fig. 9”, laying within a 40 KM radius of
Barkot have large number of unique type of intact traditional
Figure 6. A Midland settlement of Uttarakhand multistoried structures, and single story wooden structures,
which have withstood the harsh climate and natural hazards
For this paper, the midland settlements have been taken for ages. It was observed that usually there are two
up for the study and analysis. ornamented structures with sloping roofs stand opposite to
V. THE STUDY each other with an open stone paved space between the two
structures “Fig. 10”. Both the structures are simple,
To develop a better understanding of the built symmetrical in layout and façade design but look majestic and
environment, settlement pattern and habitable spaces of have highly decorative carvings on the wooden fascia and
midland settlements a pilot study was conducted which started members. Out of these two buildings one is a multistoried
from Dehradun, the capital city of Uttarakhand located at the structure with wooden beams and stone infill and the other one
foot hills of Uttarakhand and extended upto Uttarkashi “Fig. is a single storied wooden structure resting on a dry stone
7”. masonry. The multistoried building is used for dwelling
purpose where as the opposite single structure is used as the
granary.

Figure 7. The routefollowed for the study and the identified villages

Prime consideration for these midland settlements was to

develop on the southern slopes to gain maximize exposure to
the sun, proximity to some perennial water source,
availability of sufficient cultivable land and abundance of
grazing quarters for cattle. These settlements have an organic Figure 8. The settlement pattern of Koti Banal, Uttarakhand
 VII. MULTISTORIED BUILDING
The multistoried traditional structures seen in the various
villages were generally of two to four storied “Fig. 11”,
whereas in Koti Banal, a five storied structure building known
as Kothi, or a huge mansion was seen “Fig. 12”. These were
detached but some are twin houses according to their socio-
economic status “Fig. 11”. They do not share common walls
with adjacent buildings. All were constructed on raised and
elaborate stone-filled solid platform which is the continuation
of the filled-in foundation trench above the ground (Rautela &
Joshi, 2008). The dry stone masonry is used for its
construction. The structure has simple rectangular plan from 4
to 12 mt. in length and 4 to 6 mt in depth. The ground floor is
Figure 9. Settlement pattern of Dharali village, Uttarakhand used for keeping their cattle, first floor for keeping fodder for
cattle, whereas second floor is used as living areas and third
floor as kitchen space. The projecting balconies are supported
by cantilevering wooden logs, are seen on second and third
floor. The wooden frame as main structural system is first
woven and then the stone is infill in between the voids. The
walls consist of wooden cribbage configuration with
orthogonally arranged wooden logs interconnected at the
junctions by wooden pins/ tenons (Gujja Khoonta). A vertical
member having the length of several storeys’ high is inserted
into the hole which provides support to the wall in out-of-
plane direction “Fig. 13”. The smaller opening sizes are seen
Figure 10. Section through a typical dwelling unit
throughout the building even-though the door has 1.2 to 1.5 mt
as lintel height. The vertical circulation is done by the
detachable ladder made up of wood, has a locking system.

The following are observation of traditional structure

related to climatic and disaster response:

• Buildings with simple, regular and symmetry in both plan

and elevation configured buildings produce less
magnitude of twist during any hazard- landslide, flood,
earthquake, wind velocity etc., as considered to be very
stable.

• The pondering affect can be reduced when the base of the

structure is heavier and massive with respect to the upper
Figure 11. Various types of Multistoried buildings part which is lighter. The massive solid platform at the
base of the structure helps in keeping the centre of gravity
and centre of mass in close proximity and near the ground
and minimizes the overturning effect of the particularly
tall structure during seismic loading. (Rautela & Joshi,
2008)

• Large projections are vulnerable in earthquake and

undergo high deflections and reversible stress that lead to
damage of the structure (Arya, 2001). The small
projection of 1 to 1.2 mt., seen as the balcony projection
on the upper floor. They are made up of wood which is
strong and light weighted flexible material.

Figure 12. The five storied Koti Banal building

 • The small fenestrations allow the cool breeze to come
inside the building during the summer and are preferred
for the earthquake safe structures.

• The multi-storied buildings have responded well to the

different climatic conditions of the area. During summer
the front door is used to access the dwelling “Fig. 15”
whereas during winter, when the surrounding areas is
filled with snow, the rear door at upper level is used for
entrance laying usually towards the up slopes of the
mountain “Fig. 16”.

Figure 13. The vertical support member for the wall, Gujja Khoonta

Figure 14. ‘The kitchen and the interiors of the house with low ceiling heights
Figure 15. Section of the dwelling during Summer

• The floor to floor height is kept approximately 1.8 to 2

mt. to keep the inner spaces cool in the summer and hot in
the winter “Fig. 14”. The floor is made up of wood, which
has good capacity to absorb vibrations.

• Wood being an elasto-plastic material with ability to

absorb the forces of earthquake. Both housing and nailing
techniques are resorted for joining the wooden
components are incorporated in these structures which
allows for minimal angular displacement. This kind of
joint incorporates advantages of both pin joint and rigid
joint and acts as a semi-rigid joint, which is an additional
advantage for shock resistance.

• The habitable spaces are sandwiched between the cattle

shelter area and the kitchen, so that heat gets trapped
between and make living spaces comfortable “Fig. 15”.
Figure 16. Section of the dwelling during Winter
• The kitchen is kept at the top, so that in case of fire the
people can easily evacuate, more over the smoke can
easily escape from the top portion through the chimneys. VIII. SINGLE STOREY GRANARY
Secondly, the ladies can enjoy the direct warmth and light The wooden structure opposite to the multi-storied dwelling
of the sun through the opening provided in the roof while building is very intricately carved “Fig. 17”. This is the
cooking during the day time. granary which is used by the inhabitants to store grains. The
access is from the open space and is on a raised platform. The
structure is primarily wooden and resting on the stone
masonry “Fig. 17”. First there is a verandah space for keeping Today the settlements are generally growing along the
the crop and storing the various farming tools. This space also major road in a ribbon pattern due to employment generation
doubles up as the sitting space during day time, festivals and and the interactive and social aspect is not at all addressed in
cultural activities. Then there are three small doors providing these settlements which were well addressed when compared
access to the inner spaces which have opening in the floor to to the traditional settlements. People are compromising in
pour the grain “Fig. 17”. There are usually three chambers in various ways, giving priorities to the economic activities is
the cellar/ granary to store various kinds of grains. directly affecting the built environment of the place. The
haphazard developments also disrupt the visual integrity of the
These two structures are usually connected to each other former settlement.
with the help of a chain, one end connected to the door of the
granary and the other connected to a bell placed on the living
floor level of the multi storied structure. X. FUTURE COURSE OF ACTION
The study shows that the traditional knowledge system is
the outcome of holistic response to several tangible and
intangible factors which form the contextual environment.
Social, economic, geographical and climatic factor contributed
to the accumulated wisdom for the continuous development of
the area and safeguarded the habitats from ages. The Zeal to
protect the community by utilizing accumulated traditional
knowledge and experimenting with local available building
material, paved the way for the evolution of a unique
multistoried housed done in dry stone masonry. The built form
which are result of various planning and architectural practices
have sustained multi-hazard. The radiocarbon test of samples
of these structures dated to be around 880 ± 90 yrs BP. It
shows that the designer of the structures had a fairly good idea
Figure 17. The single storied granary of the forces acting upon the structure during multi hazard
event (Rautela & Joshi, 2008).
IX. DISCUSSION At present people are demolishing these old structures so as
Human habitats are dynamic in nature and changes are to use the building material for the construction of new and
inevitable. With the advancements in the new construction modern dwellings. The masses therefore need to be sensitized
materials and construction practices, people have started with the factual knowledge of sustainability present in these
constructing their houses without giving any due consideration heritage structures and educated them for adapting it with their
to the contextual needs. The making of new state of contemporary needs. It is required to attract the attention of
Uttarakhand the all round development of the state started in the concerned authorities to promote these learning to frame
all dimensions. Development of tourism, infrastructure and the guidelines wisely. The construction of government
exposure to new economic opportunities influenced the building using these learning can promote and set up an
lifestyle, occupation and the culture of these people. The example for the local people. The government projects should
government is also restricting the use of wood due to consciously include the local materials, construction
deforestation. Earlier the plantation of tree was associating techniques, and encourage people participation in designing
with each and every activity of the people with the birth of a and execution phases. This will not only create employment
child, any ceremonial occasion in the family, marriage to the opportunities but also can build a faith amongst the people and
death of a person. There were abundant numbers of trees community regarding doing construction using the traditional
available for constructing these traditional structures. knowledge. The protection of these heritage buildings and
Moreover the time constraints along with the busy schedule of construction techniques will instill a sense of pride for the
life, people are now attracted towards the contemporary traditional wisdom of their ancestors and will enable the
practices f using concrete and steel. coming generations to have a glimpse of the architectural
tradition of the region. The insights have been reflected in
In many cases, it was found that today only old people are wisdom of selecting safe places for residences, architecture to
basically residing in the traditional structure, while the survive hazards, wise use of sloppy landscape for agriculture
younger generation people have migrated to the urban areas in and other economic activities and in preserving ecosystems for
search for employment. The lack of required maintenance of survival and sustainability. This would also provide
the structure and cultural changes has a direct impact on the researchers with an opportunity to study this architectural style
settlement pattern, built form and spatial layout and is loosing of Uttarakhand in detail.
its essence.
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