😔

Tectonics
Topic 1
What is the plate tectonic theory?
The lithosphere is broken down into huge pieces called the tectonic plates , tectonic plates
move and the movement of plates will cause formation of landforms.

How does convection current lead to tectonic plate

movement?
Heat from the earth core will cause mantle material to melt and become less dense. The
mantle material will rise towards the crust. The rising mantle material will spread beneath
the plates and drag them apart resulting in divergent plate movement. The mantle material
will then los wheat and sink back to the core. Convergent plate movement occur when the
convection current collides. The material get heated up again and the process will repeat.
The rising and sinking of the mantle material forms convection current.

Slab-pull force
2 plate converge, the denser oceanic crust will get pulled by gravity and subduct below the
less dense crust. The denser oceanic crust will then sink deeper into the mantle under its
weight and pull the plates with it and causes further convergence

Seafloor spreading
2 plate move away from each other at the divergent plate boundaries. Magma from deep
within the earth rises through mid ocean ridge and new oceanic crust is formed.

How does it support the plate tectonic theory?

Tectonics 1
 The age of the rocks at the seabed shows pattern: the rocks nearer to the mid ocean ridge are
younger while the rocks further away from the mid ocean ridge are older

What are different types of plate movement?

1. Divergent

Plates move away from each other

2. Convergent

Plates move towards each other

3. Transform

Plates slide past each other

What are the type of plate boundary?

DIVERGENT

Oceanic-oceanic Continental and continental

Tectonic phenomena
Tectonic phenomena
1. Mid ocean ridge
1. Rift valley
2. Volcanoes
2. Volcanoes
3. Rift valleys
3. Earthquakes
4. Earthquakes

—> Nubian African plate will move away

—> Oceanic North American plate moving away from
from Somalian plate
Oceanic Eurasian plate
—> form the East African rift valley
—> Mid-Atlantic ridge (mid ocean ridge)
—>Mount Kenya
—> Surtsey island (volcanic island)
—> Mount Kilimanjaro

CONVERGENT

Oceanic-oceanic Continental-continental Oceanic-continental

Tectonic phenomena
Tectonic phenomena
Tectonic phenomena 1. Oceanic trench
1. Oceanic trench
1. Fold mountains 2. Volcanoes
2. Volcanoes
2. Earthquakes 3. Fold mountains
3. Oceanic trench
4. Earthquakes

—> Oceanic Nazca plate

—> Pacific plate converting
converging with South American
with the Philippines plate —> Indian plate converging
plate forming
forming with Eurasian plate forming
—> Peru-Chile trench (oceanic
—> Mariana Trench (oceanic —> Himalayas (fold mountain
trench)
trench) range)
—> Andes (fold mountain range)
—> Mariana island (volcanic —> 2015 Nepal earthquake
—> Nevado del Ruiz (volcano)
islands)
—> 2010 Chile earthquake

TRANSFORM

Tectonic phenomena
1. Faults
2. Earthquakes

Tectonics 2
 → North American plate sliding past pacific plate producing
—> San, Andreas fault, California USA
—> 1989 Loma Prieta earthquakes in California, USA

Topic 2
2.1 How do tectonic processes results in earthquakes
→ Earthquakes refer to the shaking of the earth ground due to the sudden release of energy in the
earths lithosphere.

→ Earthquakes generally occur along the plate boundaries which contain fault

Earthquake occur when:

1. Rock masses on either side of a fault are pushed by tectonic forces

2. Friction causes them to get locked, and stress builds up

3. When the stress exceeds the strength of the fault, the rocks snap or suddenly move to a new
position

4. This sudden movement causes seismic waves to be released resulting in ground shake

How are earthquakes measured?

1. Richter scale
Calculates earthquake magnitude using the height of the largest wave recorded on the
seismometer. Thus, earthquake magnitude is measured based on the maximum seismic
intensity reached, rather than the total seismic energy released throughout the earthquake.

2. Magnitude scale (Mw)

Rates earthquake magnitude based on the total energy released during the earthquake.

Since it estimates the total energy released during an earthquake instead of just the largest
wave like the Richter scale, the scale is generally more accurate.

The scale is especially accurate in measuring earthquakes of magnitude 8 and above.

2.2 How does tectonic processes affect the magnitude of

volcanic eruptions
< how do tectonic processes result in volcanic eruption>

1. Volcanic eruptions at divergent plate boundaries

Plates move part, the crust stretches and fractures develop

The decrease in overlying pressure causes parts of the underlying mantle to melt, forming
magma

Magma contains dissolved gases and is less dense than the surrounding materials

Tectonics 3
 Therefore, magma rises through weak areas in the crust to the Earths surface to erupt as lava
causing a volcanic eruption

The lava cools, solidify and accumulates over time, forming a volcano.

2. Convergent plate boundaries

plates move towards each other and the denser plate subducts under the other

As the subducting plate sinks into the mantle, the high pressure forces water out of the
oceanic crust. Water lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle , causing it to melt,
forming magma

Magma contains dissolved gases and is less dense than the surrounding materials

Therefore, magma rises through weak areas in the crust to the Earth’s surface to erupt as
lava, causing a volcanic eruption

the lava cools, solidifies and accumulates over time, forming a volcano.

Why are some volcanic eruptions more explosive than others?

High silica magma Less silica magma

More viscous magma Less viscous magma

As magma rises towards the earth’s surface, the As magma rises towards the earth’s surface, the
dissolved gases in the magma cannot easily dissolved gases in the magma can escape easily

More pressure builds up until gases escapes

Less pressure builds up
explosively

Resulting in violent, explosive eruptions Resulting in gentle, effusive eruptions

Generally associated with stratovolcanoes Generally associated with shield volcanoes

There are volcanoes with viscous magma that do not There are volcanoes with viscous magma that do not
result in explosive eruption as magma rises in a way result in explosive eruption as magma rises in a way
that allows gases to escape that allows gases to escape
→ →
while mount merapi is a stratovolcano, its while mount merapi is a stratovolcano, its
eruption in 2006 was not explosive as the viscous eruption in 2006 was not explosive as the viscous
magma rose in a way that allowed dissolved gases magma rose in a way that allowed dissolved gases
to escape easily to escape easily

How do different type of volcanoes form?

1. Stratovolcanoes
→ High viscosity magma rises through weak areas in the crust to the Earth’s surface and erupts
explosively as lava, ash and rocks

→ The ash and rocks settle on the sides of the volcano, and are later covered by lava

→ Over successive eruptions, a fall volcano consisting of alternating layers of ash and lava
develops
→ As the highly viscous lava travels a shorter distance before cooling and solidifying, the
volcano has steep sides and a narrow summit

eg: Mount mayon in the Philippines

Tectonics 4
 2. Shieldvolcanoes
→ Low viscosity magma rises through weak areas in the crust to the earth’s surface and erupts
effusively

→ Over successive eruptions, a volcano consisting of layers of lava develops

→ As the less viscous lava travels a longer distance before cooling and solidifying, the volcano
has gently sloping sides with a broad summit

Eg: Kilauea in Hawaii, USA

2.3 Distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes

How are earthquakes distributed?
Earthquakes are usually located along all types of plate boundaries

The largest concentration of earthquakes is at the pacific ring of fire

At plate boundaries, plates are pushed ny tectonic forces, stress builds up and energy is
eventually released

EXAMPLE: (description of the map figure 1)

1. Broad belt of earthquakes along convergent plate boundaries in the pacific ring of fire

2. Narrow belt of earthquakes along the divergent plate boundary at the mid-Atlantic ridge

3. Narrow belt of earthquakes along the transform plate boundary at the San Andreas fault

4. Earthquakes occur more commonly along the convergent plate boundaries at subduction
zones as more stress is built up during subduction

5. EXCEPTION: Some earthquakes may occur away from plate boundaries such as within the
Eurasian plate

What is the pacific ring of fire?

It is a road belt around the Pacific Ocean where most earthquakes and active volcanoes
occur

It compromises all three types of plate boundaries

EXAMPLE: (description of map figure 2)

1. CONVERGENT: Pacific plate moving towards from the Philippines plate

2. DIVERGENT: Pacific plate moving away from the cocos plate

3. TRANSFORM: Pacific plate sliding past the North American plate at the San Andreas
Fault

How are volcanoes distributed?

1. Volcanoes are generally located near convergent and divergent plate boundaries

2. At these plate boundaries, magma rises up to the surface, forming volcanoes

3. Belts of volcanoes may be observed along:

Tectonics 5
 CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES: a belt of volcanoes along subduction zones in the
pacific ring of fire

DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES: A belt of volcanoes along divergent plate boundaries

between the North American and Eurasian plates

4. Volcanoes are not found near:

Transform plate boundaries

Continental-continental convergent plate boundaries

5. EXCEPTIONS: Hot spot volcanoes can be found away from plate boundaries

Eg: The Piton de la Fournaise is a hot spot volcanoes located on the island of Reunion in
the Indian Ocean, away from the plate boundaries

How are tectonic hazards distributed?

Earthquake hazards Volcanic hazards

Ground shaking Tephra

Soil liquefaction Volcanic gases

Landslides Lava flows

Tsunamis Pyroclastic flows

NIL Lahars

NIL Volcanic landslides

Earthquake hazards for instance soil liquefaction, ground shaking and landslides are usually
localised and since earthquakes are located near plate boundaries these hazards are usually
found near plate boundaries

Volcanic hazards for instance volcanic landslides, pyroclastic flows, lahars, tephra and lava
flows are usually found near volcano areas, which are the convergent and divergent plate
boundaries

HOWEVER volcanic ash/gases and tsunamis may spread beyond geographic region where
earthquakes and volcanoes are located

→ Tsunamis and volcano ashes may travel thousands of kilometres from where they originated

1. Tsunami waves travel long distances without great loss of energy

Eg: The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami travelled almost 5000km to Africa, with sufficient
energy to cause deaths and destruction

2. Volcanic ashes can travel far from the geographic region where the volcanic eruption occurs

Eg: During the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, ash spread across Southeast Asia,
however whether the dispersal of ash is localised or spread far beyond the geographic
region of the volcano is dependent wind condition as well as the volume of ash erupted and
the ash is thrown into the atmosphere.

2.4 Impacts of tectonic hazards on natural and

human systems

Tectonics 6
 What are the hazards associated with earthquakes?
1. Ground shaking
Destroys ecosystem

→ Ruptures oil and chemical factories, polluting land and water

→ and uproot trees, causing widespread tree injury and death and damaging wildlife habitats

Destroys properties and infrastructure

Weakens buildings, bridges roads and railways causing them to collapse, making it difficult to
rescue people or supply emergency aid

Disrupts services

→ Snaps water and gas pipes, resulting in water shortages and disruptions to gas supply

→ Electricity and communication cables break, affecting important communication services such
as tsunami warnings and television broadcast

Causes injuries and fatalities

→ People may get trapped under collapsed buildings and infrastructure, resulting in loss of lives
and injuries

EXAMPLE:

1. 2010 Haiti earthquake Mw7.0

→ Surrounding areas around factories were polluted

→ Debris polluted rivers

→ More than 250,000 houses collapsed due to violent vibrations

→ About 220,000 people were killed

→ Water pipes ruptured, causing water shortages

2. 2010 Christchurch New Zealand earthquakes

→ Many trees were damages and more than 300 had to be removed reducing availability of
habitats of terrestrial species

2. Soil liquefaction
Occurs when the violent ground shaking causes saturated loose soil to lose its soil structure
and transform into a thick fluid

Destroys ecosystem

→ Trees on liquefied soil sink in and tip over, damaging wildlife habitats causing forest and
biodiversity loss
→ Liquefied soil may enter rivers and smother aquatic plants, causing them to die

→ Sewage pipes may be broken and untreated waste materials, killing aquatic species

Destroys properties ad infrastructure

→ Buildings and other infrastructure can sink in and tip over, and the damage makes it difficult
to rescue people or supply emergency aid

Tectonics 7
 Disrupts services

→ Electricity and communication cables and water and gas pipes can sink in and snap disrupting
supply of these services

→ Roads and railways above liquefied soil can sink in and get damaged, making it difficult to
rescue people or supply emergency aid

Causes injuries and fatalities

→ People can get trapped under collapsed buildings and infrastructure, resulting in injuries and
loss of lives
EXAMPLE:

1. 2010-2011 Christchurch New Zealand earthquakes

→ More than 60,000 residential buildings and infrastructure covering about one-third of the city
area was damaged
→ Triggered severe liquefaction as city lies on a former swamp area where soil is loose and
saturated

→ Liquefied soil entered rivers, and untreated sewage from broken pipes, polluted rivers, this
resulted in rather reduction of some species such as the caddisflies

3. Landslides
Occur when violent vibrations

1. Form cracks on steep slopes, loosening the rocks and soil

2. Trigger the loose rocks and soil to move downslope

Destroys ecosystem

→ Fast-moving debris can bury huge areas of forest and wetlands

→ Rivers can be polluted with debris, killing aquatic life
→ Rivers can be blocked causing floods that can damage nearby ecosystems and properties

EXAMPLE:

1. 2018 Papua New Guinea earthquake (Mw7.5)

→ Triggered landslides that caused huge amounts of debris to enter the rivers

→ Caused flooding
→ Destroyed forest
→ Polluted waters and killed fishes

Destroys properties and infrastructure

→ Debris can bury villages and farms, destroying properties and infrastructure

Disrupts services

→ Debris can snap electricity and communication cable and water and gas pipes, disrupting
supply of these services
→ Roads and railways can be blocked by debris, making it difficult to rescue peopl or supply
emergency aid

Tectonics 8
 Causes injuries and fatalities

→ Debris can bury people or hit them, causing injuries and loss of lives

→ Debris can block rivers resulting in floods which can drown people
EXAMPLE:

1. 2008 Great Sichuan China Earthquake (Mw7.9)

→ Triggered more than 15,000 landslides

→ Destroyed many buildings and infrastructure

→ Caused nearly 20,000 deaths

4. Tsunamis
Tsunamis are a series of ocean waves which can be caused by undersea earthquakes

Tsunamis can travel over thousands of kilometres and devastated huge area of coastline

<Referring to figure>
TSUNAMIS OCCUR WHEN

1. An undersea earthquake causes the seabed to be displaced

2. A large volume of water is lifted, forming waves of great wavelength and low height of less
than 1 metre

3. The waves travel towards land at high speeds around 800km/h

4. On approaching the coast, greater friction with the shallower seabed slows the waves down

5. The waves get closer together and increase in height. Waves can reach up to a height of 15m
or more, travel at a speed of 30-50km/h and devastate shorelines the waves hit

6. Before a tsunami occurs, the sea may recede from the shore because the sea water fills in the
void caused by displacement of the seabed

<IMPACT>

Destroys ecosystems

→ Seawater can flood huge areas of coastal wetlands and forests, damaging habitats

Tectonics 9
 → Large amount of debris carried in by the waves can pollute these areas, damaging ecosystems
and killing wildlife

Destroys properties and infrastructure

→ Fast moving waters and the large amount of debris can sweep away buildings and
infrastructure, destroying them

Disrupts services

→ Fast moving waters and large amount of debris can snap electricity, communication cables,
disrupting supply of these services

→ Fast moving water can sweep away roads and railway, difficult to rescue people and provide
emergency aid

Causes injuries and fatalities

→ Sweeping waters can drown people

→ Large amount of debris can hit and kill people
EXAMPLE:

1. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

Triggered by a 9.1 Mw undersea earthquake near Sumatra,

Tsunami waves slammed into the coasts of 11 Indian Ocean countries from Indonesia to
Somalia in Africa

More than 230,000 people were killed and entire coastlines and habitats were destroyed

2. 2011 Tohoku, Japan earthquake (Mw9.0)

Triggered a tsunami up to 40m in height

Waves destroyed homes and infrastructure

Tsunami waves carried debris inland, flooding and polluting large areas of land

Coastal city of Sendai suffered extensive damage and half of its population was killed

In Iwate, 70,000 pine trees were knocked down, resulting in forest and biodiversity loss

The tsunami hit the Pacific island devastating the ecosystem

Entire bird nesting sites were lost, and more than 100,000 Layson Albatross Chicks were
killed, and thousands of fish were washed ashore were they suffocated

What are the hazards associated with volcanoes?

1. Tephra
any materials that are ejected out and suspended before it lands and settles

Destroys ecosystem

→ Ash can be carried thousand of kilometres by prevailing winds, polluting wide areas of forest,
rivers and other habitats and destroying ecosystems
→ Ash can suffocate and kill wildlife

Tectonics 10
 → Ash can caused blindness to birds causing their eyes to get gummed together

Destroys properties and infrastructure

→ Volcanic bombs, ranging from a few centimetres to the size of a vehicle can hit properties,
damaging them

→ Ashfalls can accumulate on the rooftops of the buildings and when it mixes with water, the
weight become heavier and it can cause the rooftop to collapse
→ Ash is corrosive which can weaken building structure making them more likely to collapse
→ Thick blankets of ash can damage farmland by suffocating crops and destroying livelihoods

Disrupts services

→ Ash particles can damage plane engines leading to closure of airspaces and disrupting of air
transportation services

Causes injuries and fatalities

→ Sweeping waters can drown people

→ Large amount of debris carried in by waves can hit and kill people
EXAMPLE:

1. Mount Pinatubo eruption in the Philippines

Emitted huge amounts of ash

Buried more than 180km square of forests in ash of about 25cm

Destroyed 800km square of rice fields, affecting the livelihoods of many farmers

7 airports in Philippines had to be closed and many flights were cancelled, disrupting
transport

Some planes were also damaged

2. Volcanic gas
Volcanic gases can release toxic gases such as Sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide

Destroys ecosystem

→ Sulfur dioxide results in acid rain when it reacts wiht water in the air, which can damage
vegetation, soil and kill wildlife
→ Cold CO2 is heavier than air so it can become concentrated in low lying volcanic areas such
as river valleys
→ Large amt of CO2 in the air can kill wildlife + destroy vegetation

Destroys properties and infrastructure

→ Sulfur dioxide results in acid rain which can corrode buildings and infrastructure

Threatens public health and causes injuries fatalities

→ Sulfur dioxide irritates the skin

EXAMPLE:

1. Dieng volcano eruption in Indonesia in 1979

Tectonics 11
 Released deadly amounts of CO2 and killed about 150 people

3. Lava flows
extremely hot am can travel over some distance within a geographical region of a volcano

Deaths caused by lava flows are uncommon because people usually can evacuate in time

Destroys ecosystems

→ Hot, low silica lava can travel over same distances, destroying forests, other habitats and
ecosystems in them

Destroys properties and infrastructure

→ Lava can burn through homes, properties and infrastructure

Disrupts services

→ Lava can destroy electricity and communication cables and water and gas pipes, disrupting
supply of these services
EXAMPLE:

1. 2018 Kilauea eruption in Hawaii

Far reaching lava flows destroyed more than 600 homes

Destroyed huge areas of forests and ecosystem

Telephones and power lines were damaged causing widespread communication outages

4. Pyroclastic flows
hot clouds of gas ash and rocks travelling down a slope at a fast speed of 200km/h

Travels several kilometres

Destroys ecosystem

→ Huge areas of forests may be destroyed resulting in biodiversity loss

→ Thick layers of ash cover the path of the flows polluting huge areas of forests

Destroys properties and infrastructure

→ Hot flows burn through the homes, properties and infrastructure in their path

Disrupts services

→ Hot flows can burn electricity, communication cables and gas pipes disrupting the supply of
these services

Threatens public health and cause injuries

→ Extreme temperature can burn, kill people in a fraction of a second

EXAMPLE:

1. 2010 Merapi eruption in Indonesia

Blasted a series of pyroclastic flows down the slopes of the volcano which were inhabited by
many villagers

About350 people were killed, mostly due to burns and blast injuries

Tectonics 12
 Huge areas of forest were burn

5. Lahars
Formed when huge amt of ashes and rocks that are ejected out during an eruption are mixed
with water

Flow at high speed of 200 km/h but at a considerable distance in a geographical region of
the volcano

Destroys ecosystem

→ Lahars can cover forest and other ecosystems wiht thick mud which hardens like concrete,
destroying them
→ Pollute river killing aquatic life

Destroys properties and infrastructure

→ Bury houses and destroy them

→ Hardens like concrete, destroying the crops

Disrupt services

→ Roads and railways get blocked by the debris.making it difficult to rescue people or provide
medical assistance
→ Damage electricity and communication cables, disrupting the supply of these services

Threatens public health and cases injuries fatalities

→ Bury houses and residents, resulting in loss of lives

EXAMPLE:

1. 1985 Nevado Del Ruiz eruption in Colombia

Released huge amounts of ash and volcanic rocks which melted snow and ice

The meltwater mixed wth ash and rocks to form lahars

Fast moving lahars buried more than 20,000 people in the nearby town of Armero within
seconds

Rivers were highly muddied by the Lahars, killing many fish

6. Volcanic landslides
Destroys ecosystems

→ Fast moving debris can bury huge areas of forest and wetlands
→ Debris from landslides pollutes river killing aquatic life
→ Debris blocks rivers causing floods that can damage nearby ecosystems and properties

Destroys properties and infrastructure

→ Debris buries villages and farms

Disrupts services

→ Debris snap electricity and communication cables and water and gas pipes

Tectonics 13
 → Debris blocks road and railways difficult to rescue and provide medical assistance

Threatens public health and causes injuries fatalities

→ Bury people or hit them causing injuries or loss of lives

→ Block river resulting in floods which can drown people
EXAMPLE:

1. 1980 Mt St Helens eruption in the USA

North face of the volcanic cone collapsed

Caused volcanic landslides that travelled as far as 23km from the volcano

Destroyed huge areas of land and killed many wildlife

What are the benefits of volcanic eruptions and leaving near

volcanoes?
1. Farming with fertile soil
over thousands of years volcanic rocks will break down and undergo weathering to form
fertile soil

Suitable for agriculture → produce higher crop yields → benefit from growing a variety of
crops or earning more from

Topic 3
3.1 Achieving sustainable development through disaster risk
management

What is tectonic disaster risk?

Tectonic distaste risk management refers to the potential damages to properties injuries and
loss of lives from a disaster in a given period

Determined as a product of the interaction between tectonic hazard, vulnerability and

exposure to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions

What is disaster risk management?

The plans and actions that are put in place to

→ Designing hazard resistant buildings to ensure structures can withstand

hazards and do not collapse easily
Prevent risk before
occurrence of tectonic
EXAMPLE:
hazards
1. Taipei 101 is a skyscraper built in an earthquake prone zone
→ tectonic hazards can
— It has a weighted damper near the top of the building to balance out
have serious damage
ground shaking from earthquakes. This reduces the sway of the building
during an earthquake and the threat of the building collapsing

Tectonics 14
 Reduce disaster risk during → Tsunami and earthquake early monitoring and warning systems which
occurrence enable timely evacuation and reduces the potential loss of lives

→ Insurance coverage, offering financial payouts to rebuild when properties

Manage disaster risks after
are damaged or destroyed, brings quicker recovery from the impacts of a
the occurrences
tectonic hazard

Strengthens resilience → enables communities and countries to resist, adapt and recover
from the impacts of tectonic hazards in a timely and efficient manner

How does DR and losses hinder development ?

DR can bring serious environment, social and economic consequences, affecting both
individuals and countries

1. Environmental
landslides caused by volcanic eruptions can bury huge areas of forest and wetlands
destroying entire ecosystems and causing biodiversity loss

Debris from landslides pollutes rivers, killing aquatic life

Debris can block rivers, causing floods that can damage nearby ecosystems

2. Social
Tsunamis can result in people drowning and getting hit by fast moving debris carried by
waves

House destroyed → people get homeless → forced into temporary housing (lacks proper
sanitation, poor standard of living)

Sea water brought by tsunami inland can contaminate wells and other sources of drinking
water → water pollution →spread of disease like cholera

Individuals suffer from psychological trauma from the loss of their homes or loved ones

Constant threat of losing lives and physically harmed can affect mental well being

3. Economic
Tectonic hazards can cause destruction of homes and properties

Individuals suffer financially →costly to repair and rebuild damaged homes

Business owners lose incomes by damage of their properties

Governments spend money to repair and rebuild due to damage of tectonic hazards

These consequences hinder development of countries

1. Countries channel money to rebuild after tectonic hazard, less money to be invested → slow
down development → affects countries that has high requirement for development

2. People get driven into poverty and standards of living drop as their source of income and
houses are lost—> poverty reduction progress gets affected

Contamination of water resources—> farmers are unable to irrigate

Lose of boats due to tsunami—> fishermen cannot fish

Tectonics 15
 Schools and healthcare facilities may be damaged, disrupting social services to
disadvantaged communities—> resulting in a drop of standard of their living

EXAMPLE:

1. 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami

→ Pushed the proportion of people living below poverty line in Aceh, Indonesia , from 30 to
50%
→ Many lost their homes, jobs and sources of income, hindering Aceh development
→ Countries economic growth may also be slowed down affecting development progress

→ Countries entire tourism industry may be severely affected due to damage to infrastructure,
facilities and amenities—> loss of revenue to people and government

Why is it imp to reduce disaster risk?

Imp for disaster prone developing countries

Social, economic and environmental consequences can be very severe, which can hinder
development

Developing countries are affected disproportionately as they often lack resources to

adequately prevent, reduce and manage disaster risks

EXAMPLE:

1. 2010 Haiti earthquake Mw7.0

→ Most of the city were destroyed as the government lacked finances to invest in earthquake-
resistant buildings which lead to many collapsed buildings and 220,000 deaths

2. Tohoku, Japan earthquake Mw9.0 and tsunami in 2011

→ Had a lower death toll of abt 19,000 deaths, japan was a developed country thus although the
damage of the tsunami was severe, Japan had sufficient available resources to recover from the
disaster

HOWEVER there are countries that manage to recover from disaster risk through investment and
planning

Reducing disaster risk is a cost effective investment in preventing future losses, which
contributes to sustainable development

Additional investment for reduce disaster risk are usually smaller as compared to cost
incurred from disasters

Minimises the cost of rebuilding and lessen the threat to development gains

EXAMPLE:

1. 2010 Chile earthquake Mw8.8

—> Lesser building damage and lower casualty cost of about 500 compared to the 2010 Haiti
earthquake althgh Haiti had a lower magnitude, reason was due to Chile modern earthquake
resistant building

Tectonics 16
 3.2 Variations in disaster risk caused by
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions across places
What factors affect the extent of a tectonic disaster risks
across places?
Determined by interactions between tectonic hazards, vulnerability conditions, exposure to
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions

Factors influencing disasters

Earthquakes Volcanoes
risks

Interaction between tectonic 1. Duration of shaking 1. Chemical composition of

hazards 2. Time of shaking magma

1. Availability of surface and

groundwater facilitating the
1. Quality of building design
development of Lahars
Vulnerability conditions and construction
2. Prevailing wind conditions
2. Soil and rock properties
affecting distribution of
tephra

1. Population density 1. Presence of human

Exposure to hazards
2. Distance from epicentre settlements

The greater the vulnerability and exposure to tectonic hazards, the greater the potential loss
of human lives and damage to properties

Different level of vulnerability and exposure will affect the extent of the tectonic disaster
risks

How can disaster risks caused by earthquakes be influenced

by the nature of the hazard?
The nature of the hazard that influence disaster risks caused by earthquakes include

1. Duration of the shaking

2. Time of shaking

1. Duration of shaking
The amount of time the ground shakes can influence the extent of disaster risks

→ The longer the duration of ground shaking, the more damaging an earthquake will be
→ Buildings and bridges subjected to a long period of stress are more likely to collapse
→ People will more likely get trapped in collapsed infrastructure which leads to more injuries
and loss of time

EXAMPLE:

1. 2011 Tohoku, Japan earthquake Mw9.0

Lasted for 6 minutes, causing massive damage to buildings

Tectonics 17
 2. Time of shaking
The time of the day influences the activities people carry out and how they respond when
earthquake strikes

→ If people are asleep at night, they are less alert and unable to evacuate quickly
→ In the day, people are at work and students are in school, they are more alert and can evacuate
quickly, unlikely to get trapped, thus there are lesser injuries and loss of lives

EXAMPLE:

1. 1995 Kobe, Japan earthquake Mw6.9

occured in the morning 6am, many people were still sleeping thus many people were trapped
at home, causing to 6,000 lives lost

How can disaster risks caused by earthquakes be influenced

by vulnerable conditions?
Vulnerable conditions that can affect disaster risks caused by earthquakes include

1. Quality of building design and construction

2. Soil and rock properties

1. Quality of building design and construction

The quality plays a big role in the extent of disaster risks

Earthquakes don’t kill people, buildings and their contents kill people

The poorer the quality, the more vulnerable the buildings are to collapsing, leading to more
trapped people, injuries and loss of lives

Buildings and infrastructure are more vulnerable to collapsing when they:

→ Poorly built with low quality materials (zinc sheet) or materials that are rigid that are unable
to withstand the shaking
→ Do not follow building codes set by authorities
→ Lack earthquake-resistant features such as reinforced steel walls
EXAMPLE:

1. 2010 Mw7.0 earthquake occured in Port-au-Prince, Haiti

Many buildings and infrastructure collapsed

Buildings in Haiti are made of poor-quality materials, the concrete pillars holding up the
buildings are poorly reinforced

More than 90% all buildings near the epicentre were destroyed during earthquake,
contributing to more than 220,000 lives lost

2. Soil and rock properties

Contribute to the extent of disaster risks caused by earthquakes

Potentially open the area up to other earthquakes hazards like liquefaction

Tectonics 18
 → Buildings may be more vulnerable to collapse as they may sink into the liquefied soil and tip
over
→ People will more likely be trapped in the collapsed building leading to more injuries and loss
of lives

The softer soil, the higher disaster risk

As seismic waves travel from hard rocks to soft soil, waves get amplified

→ Passing from rocks to soil, the waves slow down but become bigger
→ Soft, loose soil will shake more intensely than hard rock, increasing the likelihood of
buildings and bridges collapsing
→ People more likely be trapped in buildings → more injuries and loss of lives. Compared to
solid rock is much more compact and shake less intensely

EXAMPLE:

1. Large areas of Port-as-Prince, Haiti lie on the layers of relatively soft soil when the 2010
Mw7.0 earthquake occured, the seismic waves were amplified, this led to collapse of many
buildings and more than 220,000 people losing their lives

How can disaster risks caused by earthquakes be influenced

by exposure to earthquakes?
1. Population density

2. Distance from the epicentre

1. Population density
Refers to number of people per unit of area usually quoted as per square kilometre (km2)

The higher the population density, the greater the number of people and buildings that are
exposed to earthquakes

→ When large numbers of people are located within buildings → more people will be trapped
when the when the buildings collapse → causing more injuries and loss of lives
EXAMPLE:

In 1995, the densely populated Japanese industrial city of Kobe was was severely affected
by a Mw6.9 earthquake, it killed over 6,000 people and injured about 40,000 people, the
population density was about 3,000 people per km2

2. Distance from epicentre

The nearer the city is from the epicentre, the greater the number of people and buildings
exposed to the hazard, hence the greater the disaster risks

When the city is nearer to the epicentre, less energy is absorbed by the rocks before the
seismic waves reaching the city

The seismic waves reaching the city will be stronger, causing more violent shaking

→ Results: buildings and bridges are more likely to collapse, and people will more likely be
trapped, leading to more injuries and loss of lives

Tectonics 19
 EXAMPLE:

1. 2010 Mw7.0 earthquake in Port-au-Prince, Haiti resulted in more than 220,000 deaths as its
epicentre was only about 25km away from the west of the city

How can disaster risk caused by volcanic eruptions be

influenced by the nature of the hazard?
1. Chemical composition of magma
Low silica magma High silica magma

Viscosity Less viscous More viscous

Nature of
Gentle, effusive eruption Explosive eruption
eruptions

1. Lava can flow far from the 1. May form highly destructive pyroclastic
volcano before cooling flows, causing widespread damage to
2. Damage infrastructure and infrastructures, significant injuries and loss of
Nature of hazards properties over large areas within lives.
geographic region of the volcano 2. Volcanic bombs may strike people and
3. Rarely kill people as they can properties, resulting in injuries and loss of
avoid the pathway of lava lives

1. 2010 eruption of Mount Merapi in

Indonesia
1. 2018 eruption of Kilauea in
- pyroclastic flows that travelled 3km down
Hawaii
the the heavily populated mountain sides,
- 24 injuries
Example destroying properties and killing many.
- destroyed 600 homes
- Volcanic bombs were ejected and spread
- USD$800 million in property
over a distance of 10 km.
damage
- resulted in the evacuation of 350,000 people
and 353 lives were lost

How can disaster risk caused by volcanic eruptions be

influenced by the vulnerability of the hazards?
1. Availability of surface and ground water
The greater the availability of SAGW, the higher the possibility of Lahars forming

→ Lahars can bury and destroy properties, increasing the likelihood of injuries and loss of lives.
EXAMPLE:

1. 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines

→ Lahars were triggered by heavy rain associated with the monsoon season, destroying more
than 100,000 homes.

2. 2017 Mt Agung volcanic eruption

→ A tropical cyclone resulted in winds and higher rainfall → lahars being directed towards
popular beaches
The availability of water in an area depends :

Tectonics 20
 1. Rapid melting of snow and ice on the volcano’s summit just before or during an eruption

2. Groundwater released through cracks and fractures during a volcanic eruption

3. Heavy rainfall

4. Existing rivers or lakes nearby

The availabilities increase the vulnerability of people and properties

2. Prevailing wind conditions

Prevailing wind is the dominant wind direction.

The strength and direction of the prevailing wind affect the direction and distribution of
ashfall and tephra → influences the extent of disaster risks.

Direction of the prevailing wind influences the direction of ashfall and tephra flow, and the
extent of damage.

→ For example, if there are large human settlements to the east of the volcano, and the
prevailing wind direction is also heading east, the wind will bring more ashfall and tephra
eastward to the settlements, thus increasing disaster risks. It is important to note that wind
direction changes during the course of an eruption, which causes disaster risks of an area to vary
over time.

Strength of the prevailing wind affects the extent of areas affected by ashfall and tephra.

→ The higher the speed of the prevailing wind, the further the ashfall and tephra are likely to be
dispersed.

→ More areas will be affected, causing more people and properties to become vulnerable.

Prolonged exposure to ash particles may cause people to experience respiratory problems, as
pollutants that are inhaled can irritate the lungs. -

Properties may be damaged when the weight of the ash accumulated on roofs causes the
roofs to collapse

Tectonics 21
 Ash that falls on farmlands covers and suffocates crops, causing them to be destroyed.

EXAMPLE:

1. 1991 Mount Pinatubo, Philippines eruption.

→ Ashfall and tephra spread a large distance due to strong prevailing wind speed (more than
20m/s),
→ Resulting in more than 90,000 hectares of damaged farmland.

How can disaster risk caused by volcanic eruptions be

influenced by the exposure of the hazards?
1. Presence of human settlements
Depending on the presence of human settlements, the exposure to the disaster risk of a
volcanic eruption differs from place to place.

→ If a volcanic eruption occurs in an area that is populated with dense human settlement, the
disaster risk from a volcanic eruption is high as there is a greater potential for the loss of lives
and destruction of properties than if the volcanic eruption occurred underwater, which is devoid
of human settlement.
Why do so many people still choose to live in volcanically active areas, often building
settlements on the flanks of volcanoes?
This is because volcanic areas provide advantages and opportunities example:

1. Rich, fertile volcanic soils which are ideal for farming

2. Harnessing geothermal energy from naturally occurring hot water and steam, which can be
used to provide electricity

3. Valuable minerals such as sulfur which can be mined

EXAMPLE:

1. Mount Sinabung in Indonesia.

→ Mount Sinabung has experienced several explosive eruptions since 2010. Nonetheless, many
continue to live and work within the ‘red zone’ (the restricted zone within a 3km radius from the
volcano’s crater) → increasing their exposure to volcanic hazards. This is because there are rich,
fertile soils which are ideal for farming

Tectonics 22