UNIT - 2

IP NETWORKS
IP past, present and future - IP influence and confluence - IP Network
convergence - LAN Technologies - IP Routing, LAN Switching - WAN’s, WAN
Technologies and Topologies - Wireless IP LANS, Mobility Networks, Global IP
Networks - Global capacity, Globally Resilient IP - Internet – A Network of
Networks

PART - A

1. Define IP
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol, or set of rules, for routing and
addressing packets of data so that they can travel across networks and arrive
at the correct destination.

2. Define Mobility Networks

Network Mobility (NEMO) is a protocol that manages the mobility of a
network of nodes typically moving in tandem. NEMO Basic Support extends
MIPv6 procedures, through the addition of the Mobile Router (MR) entity.
Each Mobile Network Node is connected to MR, and all together they form
the mobile network.

3. Define MPLS
Multiprotocol Label Switching, or MPLS, is a networking technology
that routes traffic using the shortest path based on “labels,” rather than
network addresses, to handle forwarding over private wide area networks. As
a scalable and protocol-independent solution, MPLS assigns labels to each
data packet, controlling the path the packet follows. MPLS greatly improves
the speed of traffic, so users don’t experience downtime when connected to
the network.

4. Define Internet.
The Internet is a vast network that connects computers all over the
world. Through the Internet, people can share information and communicate
from anywhere with an Internet connection.

5. Compare IP version 4 and I. P. Version 6

 The main difference is that IPV4 uses 32-bit IP addresses, whereas IPv6
supports 128-bit IPs.
 While IPv4 uses a number addressing method, IPv6 is alphanumeric.
  IPv6 doesn’t support broadcast and Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM),
and it doesn’t have checksum fields.
 While IPv4 relies on the Address Resolution Protocol to map to MAC
addresses, IPv6 uses the Neighbor Discovery Protocol.
 IPv6 can be auto-configured to allow direct addressing.
 IPv6 allows for multicasting and comes with larger packet headers.
 IPv6 is slightly faster than IPv4.
 IPv6 is more secure than IPv4 due to having internet protocol security
(IPSec) built into its protocol.

6. Why IP is important?
An internet protocol makes communication between internet-
connected devices a reality. Without it, connected devices wouldn’t be able
to communicate with each other. IP is an established set of rules that
determine how data is distributed between internet-enabled devices sharing
the same network.
Each device has its own design, structure, and internet processes. IPs
overcome these differences and allow connected devices to communicate
with each other. Because of that, internet protocols are the very fabric of any
modern digital communication on the web.

7. Mention some LAN Technologies.

 Client-Server LAN.
 Peer-to-peer (P2P) LAN.
 Token ring LAN. Based on the design of architecture, LAN is divided into
the token ring and token bus categories.
 Token bus LAN.
 Wired LAN.
 Wireless LAN.
 Cloud-managed LAN.

8. Categorize different types of routing.

 Static Routing
 Dynamic Routing
 Default Routing

9. List out the Advantages of LAN Switching

 It can give rise to an increase in network scalability, which means that
network can expand as the demand grows.
  Each network user can experience good and improved bandwidth
performance.
 The setup of LAN is easy as compared to other switching techniques.
10. Enlist the Different Types of Topologies in WANs
The four main types of WAN topologies are:
 Point-to-point WANs
 Multipoint WANs
 Mesh WANs
 Virtual Private LANs (VPLANs)

11. Compare Global IP network with Local IP Network.

A global IP address is meant to be publicly accessible from the
Internet. A local- scope IP address is not routable to the Internet. This means that
if your device is assigned local-scope address, your device will not be able to
access the Internet, however you will still be able to access campus network
resources.

12. What is the difference between IP network and IP address?

IP Address is a unique 32-bit address for a host on a TCP/IP network or
internetwork. When coming to network One is a group of computers on a
single physical network segment. The other is an IP network address range
that is allocated by a system administrator

13. What is the wireless LAN?

A wireless local-area network (WLAN) is a group of collocated computers or
other devices that form a network based on radio transmissions rather than
wired connections. A Wi-Fi network is a type of WLAN; anyone connected to
Wi-Fi while reading this webpage is using a WLAN.

14. What are the 4 types of wireless LAN?

 wireless local area networks,
 wireless metropolitan area networks,
 wireless personal area networks and
 wireless wide area networks

15. What are the basics of LAN switching?

LAN switching is a form of packet switching used in Local Area Networks. LAN
switching is performed using hardware at the Data Link Layer. Because LAN
switching is hardware-based, it uses MAC addresses, which are used by LAN
switches to forward frames.
16. Define network resilience.
A computing infrastructure that provides continuous business operation (i.e.,
highly resistant to disruption and able to operate in a degraded mode if
damaged), rapid recovery if failure does occur, and the ability to scale to
meet rapid or unpredictable demands.

17. What network topology does WAN use?

The ring topology is commonly used on both LAN and WAN networks. With a
ring layout, the devices – sometimes referred to as nodes - on the network
are laid out in a rough circle. Each node is connected to the nodes in front
and behind

18. Who uses Confluence?

Confluence is for teams of any size and type, from those with mission-critical,
high-stakes projects that need rigor behind their practices, to those that are
looking for a space to build team culture and engage with one another in a
more open and authentic way.

19. What is an IP converged network?

IP convergence refers to the capability of the Internet to act as a single
pathway for various applications that traditionally had their own dedicated
networks. The telephone system is a prime example. The public switched
telephone network (PSTN) supports the traditional telephone service.

20. What is a network of networks called?

The Internet is called a network of networks because it is a global network of
computers that are linked together by cables and telephone lines making
communication possible among them. It can be defined as a global network
over a million smaller heterogeneous computer networks.

PART - B
1. Define IP Networks. Also explain the difference between IPv4 with IPv6 in
detail
An IP network is a group of computers connected via their unique
internet protocol (IP) addresses. Your employees can use these computers to
securely send and receive information with each other.
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6
To better understand the differences between IPv4 and IPv6, let’s first
see what both protocols are. IPv4 is the most widely used internet protocol to
identify devices on the web using an addressing system.
 This IP uses a 32-bit address scheme to carry more than 90% of internet
traffic. IPv6, on the other hand, is the updated version of IPv4 that was
introduced as a solution to all the problems associated with the previous
version. It supports 128-bit addresses.
Key differences between IPv4 and IPv6 are many but let’s name a few:
 The main difference is that IPV4 uses 32-bit IP addresses, whereas IPv6
supports 128-bit IPs.
 While IPv4 uses a number addressing method, IPv6 is alphanumeric.
 IPv6 doesn’t support broadcast and Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM),
and it doesn’t have checksum fields.
 While IPv4 relies on the Address Resolution Protocol to map to MAC
addresses, IPv6 uses the Neighbor Discovery Protocol.
 IPv6 can be auto-configured to allow direct addressing.
 IPv6 allows for multicasting and comes with larger packet headers.
 IPv6 is slightly faster than IPv4.
 IPv6 is more secure than IPv4 due to having internet protocol security
(IPsec) built into its protocol.
When compared to IPv4, IPv6 provides higher levels of mobile
capabilities and interoperability for a wide range of network devices. It
provides more security and can handle data packets more securely, flexibly,
scalable, and efficiently.
It also enables ISPs to make their routing tables more hierarchical to reduce
their size and ensure a more stable connection by allowing them to use an
IPv6 proxy to translate IPv4 to IPv6.
An IPv6 proxy is a software that intercepts online traffic and converts
the protocols to ensure that ISPs can cope with the load regardless of what IPs
the users use. Because of these advantages, the IPv6 protocol will provide the
necessary address space needed for the future growth of the internet.

2. With a neat diagram explain the concept of IP Routing

IP Routing:
IP routing is the process that defines the shortest path through which
data travels to reach from source to destination. It determines the shortest
path to send the data from one computer to another computer in the same
or different network. Routing uses different protocols for the different networks
to find the path that data follows. It defines the path through which data
travel across multiple networks from one computer to other. Forwarding the
packets from source to destination via different routers is called routing. The
routing decision is taken by the routers.
 Terminologies:
 Autonomous System (AS): The collection of networks managed and
supervised by a single entity or organization is called an autonomous system.
 Router: A router is a device that forwards the data using routing through
multiple networks.
 Routing Table: A routing table is a table present in the router which stores
the routing information.
Different Types of Routing:
There are three different types of routing:
1. Static Routing
2. Dynamic Routing
3. Default Routing
Static Routing: In this type of routing the routing table is updated by the
network administrator.
Dynamic Routing: In this type of routing the routing table is automatically
updated using routing protocols.
Default Routing: In this type of routing the router is configured to send all the
data towards a specific router. This routing is generally used with the stub
routers.
How does IP routing work?
When the data is sent from the source to the destination the TCP and
other protocols of the source work and form an IP packet that is sent to the
network. When an IP packet is sent to the network from the source it has to
pass through multiple routers to reach the destination. The router in the
network gets the destination address from the packet and through its routing
table identifies the next router information to which the data packet has to
be passed. The routing table of the router includes various information about
the next router, its cost, and other necessary information. The router takes the
 routing decision with the help of routing protocols and a routing table to
which next router the packet has to be sent to find the best route to reach
the destination. Different packets can be sent through different paths but all the
packets reach their intended destination. When the packets reach the
destination through different routers it sends them to the TCP for further
processing.

3. a) Write short notes on network of networks.

Network of Networks
What is a network of networks called?
The Internet is called a network of networks because it is a global network of
computers that are linked together by cables and telephone lines making
communication possible among them. It can be defined as a global network
over a million smaller heterogeneous computer networks.
What is an example of a network of networks?

Network example: your home Wi-Fi

The Wireless LAN (Wireless Local Area Network, i.e. the Wi-Fi network) in
your home is a good example of a small client-server network. The various devices
in your home are wirelessly connected to the router, which acts as a central
node (server) for the household.
3. b) Explain the concept of LAN switching in detail.
LAN Switching:
LAN stands for Local-area Network. It is a computer network that covers a relatively
small area such as within a building or campus of up to a few kilometers in
size. LANs are generally used to connect personal computers and workstations in
company offices to share common resources, like printers, and exchange
information.
LAN switching is a technology that promises to increase the efficiency of local area
networks and solve the current bandwidth problems. Examples of Lan Switching
are as follows:
 Wired LAN: Ethernet, Hub, Switch

 Wireless LAN: Wi-fi

 4. Elaborate in detail about the WAN technologies and Topologies.
Types of WAN technologies
Packet switching
Packet switching is a method of data transmission in which a message
is broken into several parts, called packets, that are sent independently, in
triplicate, over whatever route is optimum for each packet, and reassembled
at the destination. Each packet contains a piece part, called the payload, and
an identifying header that includes destination and reassembly information.
The packets are sent in triplicate to check for packet corruption. Every packet
is verified in a process that compares and confirms that at least two copies
match. When verification fails, a request is made for the packet to be re-sent.

TCP/IP protocol suite

TCP/IP is a protocol suite of foundational communication protocols
used to interconnect network devices on today's Internet and other
computer/device networks. TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol.

Router
A router is a networking device typically used to interconnect LANs to
form a wide area network (WAN) and as such is referred to as a WAN device.
IP routers use IP addresses to determine where to forward packets. An IP
address is a numeric label assigned to each connected network device.

Overlay network
An overlay network is a data communications technique in which
software is used to create virtual networks on top of another network,
typically a hardware and cabling infrastructure. This is often done to support
applications or security capabilities not available on the underlying network.
 Packet over SONET/SDH (PoS)
Packet over SONET is a communication protocol used primarily for
WAN transport. It defines how point-to-point links communicate when using
optical fiber and SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) or SDH (Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy) communication protocols.

Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)

MPLS is a network routing-optimization technique. It directs data from
one node to the next using short path labels rather than long network
addresses, to avoid time-consuming table lookups.

ATM
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is a switching technique common
in early data networks, which has been largely superseded by IP-based
technologies. ATM uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing to encode
data into small, fixed-sized cells. By contrast, today's IP-based Ethernet
technology uses variable packet sizes for data.

Frame Relay
Frame Relay is a technology for transmitting data between LANs or
endpoints of a WAN. It specifies the physical and data-link layers of digital
telecommunications channels using a packet switching methodology.
Frame Relay packages data in frames and sends it through a shared Frame
Relay network. Each frame contains all necessary information for routing it to
its destination. Frame Relay's original purpose was to transport data across
telecom carriers' ISDN infrastructure, but it's used today in many other
networking contexts.

The Different Types of Topologies in WANs

There are several different types of topologies in WAN architectures.
The four main types of WAN topologies are:

 Point-to-point WANs
 Multipoint WANs
 Mesh WANs
 Virtual Private LANs (VPLANs)
Let us cover each one of them one by one.
1. Point-to-Point (PPP) WANs:
The most common type of WAN topology in WAN architecture is
a point-to-point WAN. Let’s learn about it in detail.
 These connections help in forming a connection between LANs and
service provider WANs. It also connects LAN segments with a
business/domestic organization’s networks.
 A point-to-point WAN consists of two routers that are connected by a
single link.
 Point-to-point WANs are often used to connect two sites that are
located far apart.
 It is usually called a serial connection or a leased-line
connection because the WAN connection lines are leased or rented out
typically from a telephone company and are leased by the company for
establishing a PPP WAN connection.
 PPP is an open-standard technology.
 The main advantage of using the PPP connection is that it transports
Layer 3 packets across a data-link layer point-to-point link.
 PPP can be used in fiber-optic lines, and satellite transmission.
2. Multipoint WANs:

 Multipoint WANs allow for multiple nodes to be connected at the same

time.
 The channel is therefore shared among multiple devices and nodes.
 The network bandwidth is utilized to its maximum capacity.
 There is one transmitter and many receivers present in such a WAN
topology.
 Since the communication channel is shared, it does not provide any
security or privacy.
3. Mesh WANs:

 Mesh WANs connect multiple nodes to each other in different ways.

 This topology is expensive compared to other WAN topologies.
 WANs are typically partial mesh networks.
 These are secure unlike multipoint WANs as their single nodes are
easily replaced.
4. Virtual Private LANs (VPLANs):

 VPLANs provide secure connections between two sites.

  It is an Eternet-based point-to-multipoint Layer 2 VPN that allow you to
connect various Ethernet LANs.
 The traffic travels across service provider networks.

5. a) Paraphrase the concept of various LAN technologies in detail. (8)

LAN Technologies
A local Area Network (LAN) is a data communication network
connecting various terminals or computers within a building or limited
geographical area. The connection between the devices could be wired or
wireless. Ethernet, Token rings, and Wireless LAN using IEEE 802.11 are
examples of standard LAN technologies.
Ethernet
Ethernet is a widely deployed LAN technology.This technology was
invented by Bob Metcalfe and D.R. Boggs in the year 1970. It was
standardized in IEEE 802.3 in 1980.

Ethernet shares media. Network which uses shared media has high
probability of data collision. Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multi
Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) technology to detect collisions. On the
occurrence of collision in Ethernet, all its hosts roll back, wait for some random
amount of time, and then re-transmit the data.

Ethernet connector is,network interface card equipped with 48-bits

MAC address. This helps other Ethernet devices to identify and communicate
with remote devices in Ethernet.

Traditional Ethernet uses 10BASE-T specifications.The number 10

depicts 10MBPS speed, BASE stands for baseband, and T stands for Thick
Ethernet. 10BASE-T Ethernet provides transmission speed up to 10MBPS and
uses coaxial cable or Cat-5 twisted pair cable with RJ-45 connector. Ethernet
follows star topology with segment length up to 100 meters. All devices are
connected to a hub/switch in a star fashion.

Fast-Ethernet

To encompass need of fast emerging software and hardware

technologies, Ethernet extends itself as Fast-Ethernet. It can run on UTP,
Optical Fiber, and wirelessly too. It can provide speed up to 100 MBPS. This
standard is named as 100BASE-T in IEEE 803.2 using Cat-5 twisted pair cable.
It uses CSMA/CD technique for wired media sharing among the Ethernet hosts
 and CSMA/CA (CA stands for Collision Avoidance) technique for wireless
Ethernet LAN.

Fast Ethernet on fiber is defined under 100BASE-FX standard which

provides speed up to 100 MBPS on fiber. Ethernet over fiber can be extended
up to 100 meters in half-duplex mode and can reach maximum of 2000
meters in full-duplex over multimode fibers.

Giga-Ethernet

After being introduced in 1995, Fast-Ethernet could enjoy its high

speed status only for 3 years till Giga-Ethernet introduced. Giga-Ethernet
provides speed up to 1000 mbits/seconds. IEEE802.3ab standardize Giga-
Ethernet over UTP using Cat-5, Cat-5e and Cat-6 cables. IEEE802.3ah defines
Giga-Ethernet over Fiber.

Virtual LAN

LAN uses Ethernet which in turn works on shared media. Shared media
in Ethernet create one single Broadcast domain and one single Collision
domain. Introduction of switches to Ethernet has removed single collision
domain issue and each device connected to switch works in its separate
collision domain. But even Switches cannot divide a network into separate
Broadcast domains.

Virtual LAN is a solution to divide a single Broadcast domain into

multiple Broadcast domains. Host in one VLAN cannot speak to a host in
another. By default, all hosts are placed into the same VLAN.

In this diagram, different VLANs are depicted in different color codes. Hosts in
one VLAN, even if connected on the same Switch cannot see or speak to other hosts
in different VLANs. VLAN is Layer-2 technology which works closely on Ethernet. To
route packets between two different VLANs a Layer-3 device such as Router is
required.

b) explain the Wireless LAN technology using IEEE 802.11

(8)

Wireless LANs are those Local Area Networks that use high frequency radio waves
instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can
move around within the area of network coverage. Most WLANs are based upon
the standard IEEE 802.11 or WiFi.

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows

1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and equipments that are connected
to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types:

 Wireless Access Pointz (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
 Client. − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones,
etc.

Each station has a wireless network interface controller.

2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of stations communicating
at physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon mode of
operation:

 Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices

through access points.
 Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in
an ad hoc manner.

3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.

4) Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

6. a) Illustrate the token ring method with relevant diagrams in detail
Token Ring
It is a computer networking technology used to build local area networks. It was
introduced by IBM in 1984, and standardized in 1989 as IEEE 802.5. It uses a special
three-byte frame called a token that is passed around a logical ring of workstations
or servers. This token passing is a channel access method providing fair access for all
stations, and eliminating the collisions of contention-based access methods.
Token Ring was a successful technology, particularly in corporate environments, but
was gradually eclipsed by the later versions of Ethernet.
b) Write short notes on Mobility network (8)
Mobility Networks are a type of wireless network that allow devices to
communicate with each other without the need for a fixed physical link. Mobility
models are used to characterize the movements of mobile users with respect to
their location, velocity, and direction over a period of time .
In the context of cellular networks, mobility management is an essential aspect that
allows mobile devices to move freely between different geographical locations and
different networks . A cellular network is a radio network of individual cells, each
served by at least one fixed-location transceiver. These base stations provide the
cell with the network coverage which can be used for transmission of voice, data,
and other types of content .
Airtel recently launched its cutting-edge 5G services in Coimbatore, Madurai, Hosur,
Trichy in addition to Chennai. Airtel’s 5G services are already live in Chennai. Airtel
5G Plus services will be available to customers in a phased manner as the company
continues to construct its network and complete the roll-out. Customers with 5G
enabled devices will enjoy high-speed Airtel 5G Plus network at no extra cost until
the roll-out is more widespread