UNIT III: SOLAR ENERGY

3.1. Introduction and Terminologies

3.1.1. Sun-path Diagram

Sun-path diagrams are graphical representations that show the path of the sun across the sky
throughout the year. These diagrams provide a visual representation of the sun's position in
relation to the observer's location on Earth. Sun-path diagrams are valuable tools for analyzing
the availability and intensity of solar radiation at different times of the day and year. Sun-path
diagrams are crucial for optimizing the design and placement of solar energy systems, such as
solar panels or solar thermal collectors.

Figure 19. Sun Path in Northern Hemisphere

Figure 20. Sun Path Diagram

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 Figure 21. Earth's revolution around the sun

Figure 22. Position of earth in relation to the sun’s rays at time of winter solstice
3.1.2. Solar Constant
The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called Solar Constant GSC.
It is the total radiation energy received from the Sun per unit of time per unit of area on a
theoretical surface perpendicular to the Sun’s rays and at Earth’s mean distance from the Sun.
It is not a fixed value but varies due to the change in distance between sun and the earth.
Generally, the value of solar constant is taken as 1.367 Kilo Joule per sec per square meter or
1.367 Kilo watt per square meter.

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 Figure 23. Solar Constant Value
3.1.3. Solar Radiation Data and Geometry
Latitude (Ф) is the angle made by a
radial line, joining the given location
on the earth’s surface to the centre of
the earth, with its projection on the
equator plane, north taken
positively. -90º ≤ Ф ≤ 90º

Angle of Incidence, (θi) is the angle between the sun’s ray

incident on the plane surface (collector) and the normal to that
surface.
Slope or Tilt Angle (β) is the angle between the inclined plane surface, under consideration,
and the horizontal. It is taken to be +ve for the surface sloping towards the south.
Declination (δ) is the angular position of the sun with respect to the plane of equator, north
positive. - 23.45º ≤ δ ≤ 23.45º
Hour angle (ω ) is the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local meridian (due
to rotation of the earth on its axis). 1 hour = 15º, morning is +ve, afternoon is -ve.

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Solar altitude or Inclination angle (α) is
the angle between the sun’s rays and their
projection on a horizontal surface.
Zenith angle (θz) is the angle between the
sun’s ray and perpendicular (normal) to
the horizontal plane.
Solar Azimuth Angle (γs) is the angle on
a horizontal plane, between the line due
south and the projection of the sun’s ray
on the horizontal plane. Due south or north
is taken as 0° azimuth depending upon the
user’s convention. The clockwise angle is
+ve.

Solar radiation is the electromagnetic energy emitted by the Sun. Amount of solar radiation
available at a given location varies from location to location and season to season.
Solar radiation passes through the earth’s atmosphere before reaching the surface. In the
atmosphere, the radiation is subjected to absorption and scattering, which reduces the amount
of solar radiation reaching the surface.
Air Mass Description Solar Energy Reaching
Earth's Surface
AM0 Solar radiation outside the Earth's 1367 W/m²
atmosphere

AM1 Solar radiation at sea level when the sun is 1105 W/m²
directly overhead

AM1.5 Solar radiation at sea level when the sun is at 1000 W/m²
a 48.2° angle to the overhead position
AM2 Solar radiation at sea level when the sun is at 894 W/m²
a 60° angle to the overhead position

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Global, Direct and Diffuse Radiation:
Direct Radiation: Direct radiation refers to the solar energy that travels in a straight line from
the Sun to the Earth's surface without any scattering or reflection. It is also known as beam
radiation and contributes to the direct illumination of a surface.
Diffuse Radiation: Diffuse radiation results from the scattering and reflection of solar
radiation by the atmosphere, clouds, and other particles in the air. It is characterized by its
scattered distribution and contributes to the overall illumination of the sky and surfaces.
Global Radiation: Global radiation is the combination of direct and diffuse radiation received
on a horizontal surface. It represents the total solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface from
all directions.
Units of Measurement:
Solar radiation is typically measured in terms of irradiance, which quantifies the power per unit
area incident on a surface. The standard unit of solar irradiance is watts per square meter
(W/m²).

3.1.4. Estimation of Average Solar Radiation

In order to predict the solar contributions to building cooling loads, it is desirable to estimate
the solar intensity on typical or average clear days. An estimate of the direct normal solar flux
at the earth's surface for an average clear day is:

where the coefficients A and B are empirically determined from measurements of IDN made on
typical clear days. The coefficients can be interpreted as:
A = Apparent direct normal solar flux at the outer edge of the earth's atmosphere

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B = Apparent atmospheric extinction coefficient
The numerical values of A and B vary throughout the year because of seasonal changes in the
dust and water vapor content of the atmosphere and because of the changing earth-sun distance.
The ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals lists recommended values for the coefficients A
and B for the twenty-first day of each month. These values are presented in Table below. Also
included in the table are the values of the declination angle and Equation of Time that ASHRAE
lists in conjunction with the clear day coefficients.

Figure 24. Coefficients for average clear day solar radiation calculations for twenty-first day
of every month
The use of Equation 12 with the coefficients presented in Table 2 is commonly referred to as
the ASHRAE Clear Day Solar Flux Model. The model also approximates the average clear day
diffuse solar flux from the sky that strikes a horizontal surface, IdH, by the relation:

The recommended values of the dimensionless coefficient C are listed in Table above.
3.1.5. Solar Radiation on Tilted Surfaces
The solar radiation striking a surface generally consists of three components, direct, diffuse
and reflected. The direct, or beam, solar radiation is that received from the sun without having
been scattered by the atmosphere. The direct solar flux (energy/area-time) striking a surface is
denoted by ID. If the surface is perpendicular to the solar rays, the incident solar flux is equal
to the Direct Normal flux, IDN.
From Figure 5 it can be seen that if
the solar flux strikes a surface at an
angle of incidence θ, the direct
solar flux striking the surface is
given by:
ID = IDN * cosθ

In the case of a horizontal surface,

an additional subscript, H, is used.
Thus, IDH is the direct solar flux

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striking the horizontal. Notice that for a horizontal surface the incidence angle is equal to the
zenith angle, θH, and therefore:
IDH = IDN * cosθH=IDN * sinβ
Optimal Tilt for Solar Equipment
A solar conversion equipment installed at point 'A' will get maximum sunlight during the
summer (June, overhead sun position at noon)
The same point A will get very small radiation during the month of December or in winter as
the horizontal surface at point 'A' in December will receive the radiation at an angle equal to
the location latitude + inclination of the earth's axis.
But many times, it may be required that a solar system should collect nearly same amount of
radiation throughout the year. Or a system should collect more radiation in winter than
summer as is the case with a solar water heater. In order to achieve this, it is best to incline the
solar system at an angle equal to the latitude angle.

3.1.6. Solar Radiation Measurements

Experimental determination of the energy transferred to a surface by solar radiation requires
instruments that will measure the heating effect of direct solar radiation and diffuse solar radiation.
There are two general classes of solar radiation measuring devices. The instrument that is used to
measure direct normal or beam radiation is referred to as a pyrheliometer.
The other instrument, called a pyranometer, is able to measure total radiation within its
hemispherical field of view. A pyranometer can also be used to measure diffuse radiation alone by
shading the sensing element from the sun’s direct rays.

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 Figure 25. Pyrheliometer (Detailed Image)

Figure 26. Pyranometer (Detailed Image)

Note: For exams, you can make a simpler representation of these devices.

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 Figure 27. Pyrheliometer (Simple Representation)

Figure 28. Pyranometer (Simple Representation)

3.2. Devices and Equipment

3.2.1. Uses of Solar Energy

We use different devices and equipment and utilize the solar energy available from the sun in
a number of different ways. Some of the uses of solar energy are listed below.
• Heating of Water
• Heating of Houses (active systems)
• Distillation of Water
• Cooking of Food
• Greenhouse Heating
• Drying of Food

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 • Power Generation
• Refrigeration and Air conditioning
• Passive Heating and Cooling
• Production of Very High Temperatures
• Industrial Process Heat Systems
• Pumping of Water
• Direct Conversion of Electricity (PV)

3.2.2. Solar Technologies

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending
on the way they capture, convert, and distribute solar energy.
Passive solar system:
• Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials
with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that
naturally circulate air.
• Solar energy collection and utilization systems that do not use external energy, such as
solar chimneys, solar dryers, etc.
Active solar system:
• Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal
collectors to harness the energy.
• Active solar uses electrical or mechanical equipment for this conversion.

3.2.3. Solar Thermal Energy System

Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of energy and a technology for harnessing solar
energy to generate thermal energy or electrical energy (do not confuse it with PV
technology) for use in industry, and in the residential and commercial sectors.
Solar thermal technology uses the sun’s energy, rather than fossil fuels, to generate low-cost,
environmentally friendly thermal energy. This energy is used to heat water or other fluids and
can also power solar cooling systems. Solar thermal systems differ from solar photovoltaic
(PV) systems, which generate electricity rather than heat.
The advantages of using thermal energy systems are:
• Reduced Utility Bills: Businesses that require large quantities of hot water or other
fluids must pay for the fuel required to heat those fluids. Solar thermal systems use
solar energy to heat fluids, reducing utility bills by up to 70%.
• Compliance with Sustainability Mandates: Many commercial building owners face
mandates requiring them to implement renewable energy technologies. Solar thermal
systems can help meet these requirements while also providing solid ROI.
• Reduced Carbon Footprint: By utilizing solar energy instead of fossil fuels, solar
thermal systems reduce the amount of site-generated, carbon-based greenhouse gases a
business emits into the atmosphere.

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3.2.4. Solar Collectors
Solar collectors are devices that collect and/or concentrate solar radiation from the sun to
generate heat or electricity. Types:
• Flat Plate Collectors
• Evacuated Tube Collectors
• Line Focus Collectors
• Point Focus or Parabolic-Dish Collectors

Flat Plate Collectors

A flat plate collector is a type of solar thermal collector that is used to harness solar energy for
heating applications. It consists of a flat, rectangular panel that is typically made of metal or
other heat-conductive materials. The panel is designed to absorb sunlight and convert it into
thermal energy. The term ‘flat plate’ is slightly misleading since the absorbing surface may not
necessarily be flat but may be grooved and other shapes.

Figure 29. Schematic Representation of Flat Plate Collector

Working of Flat Plate Collectors
When sunlight strikes the absorber plate, it heats up, transferring thermal energy to the fluid
flowing through the channels. The heated fluid can then be used for various applications, such
as domestic hot water heating, space heating, or even electricity generation through a heat
engine or thermoelectric device.
Advantages of Flat Plate collectors
• Absorbs direct, diffused, and reflected components of solar radiation.
• Fixed in tilt and orientation and no need for tracking of sun.
• Low cost and easy to construct.
• Low maintenance cost

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Construction of Flat Plate Collectors
• Absorber Plate: This is a dark-colored, heat-absorbing plate made of metal, such as
copper or aluminum. It is designed to maximize the absorption of solar radiation.
• Transparent Cover: A transparent cover, often made of glass or plastic, is placed over
the absorber plate to trap solar radiation and minimize heat loss from the collector.
• Insulation: The sides and back of the collector are insulated to reduce heat loss through
conduction.
• Fluid Flow Channels: Tubes or pipes are attached to the absorber plate, allowing a
heat transfer fluid (such as water or an antifreeze solution) to flow through the collector
and absorb thermal energy.
• Enclosing box: Its principal functions are to hold the other components of the collector
and to protect the collector plate and insulation material from the weather.

Evacuated Tube Collectors

It consists of a series of glass tubes that are sealed and evacuated, creating a vacuum
environment to enhance thermal insulation and reduce heat loss.

Figure 30. Schematic Representation of Evacuated Tube Collectors

Working of Evacuated Tube Collectors
Solar Radiation Absorption: When sunlight strikes the glass tubes, the absorber coating
absorbs the solar radiation. The absorbed energy heats up the fluid inside the heat pipe.

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Heat Transfer: As the fluid in the heat pipe absorbs heat, it vaporizes and rises to the top of
the pipe, where the heat is transferred to the manifold. The vapor condenses as it loses heat,
and the liquid then flows back down to the bottom of the heat pipe.
Heat Transfer Fluid: The manifold is connected to a heat transfer fluid circulation system,
such as water or an antifreeze solution. The heated fluid from the manifold is used for various
heating applications, such as space heating or hot water.

Construction of Evacuated Tube Collectors:

Glass Tubes: Each collector consists of multiple parallel glass tubes, typically made of
borosilicate glass. These tubes are transparent and allow sunlight to enter while minimizing
heat loss.
Absorber Coating: Inside each glass tube, there is a metal absorber coating, usually made of
selective coating material. This coating absorbs solar radiation and converts it into thermal
energy.
Heat Pipe: Running through the center of each glass tube is a heat pipe. A heat pipe is a sealed
copper pipe containing a small amount of working fluid. It transfers heat from the absorber
coating to the manifold at the top of the collector.
Manifold: The manifold is located at the top of the collector and provides a connection for the
heat pipes. It collects thermal energy from the heat pipes and transfers it to the heat transfer
fluid.

Advantages
High Efficiency: Evacuated tube collectors have high thermal efficiency, as the vacuum
environment reduces heat loss and allows for better insulation.
Cold Climate Performance: They perform well in colder climates and can generate heat even
in low solar radiation.
Durability: The glass tubes are durable and can withstand extreme weather conditions.

Disadvantages
Cost: Evacuated tube collectors are generally more expensive than flat plate collectors due to
their complex design and manufacturing processes.
Complexity of Installation: The installation of evacuated tube collectors requires more
expertise and precision compared to flat plate collectors.
Fragility: Glass tubes can be fragile and may require careful handling during installation and
maintenance.

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Line Focus Collectors
A line focus collector is a type of solar thermal collector that concentrates sunlight onto a
narrow focal line or area.

Figure 31. Schematic Representation of Line Focus Collectors

Working of Line Focus Collectors

Sunlight Concentration: The curved reflector or mirror is designed to concentrate sunlight
onto a focal line or area. It redirects and focuses the incoming solar rays onto the receiver.
Solar Energy Absorption: The receiver, positioned at the focal line, absorbs the concentrated
solar radiation. The heat-absorbing material or the fluid flowing through the receiver absorbs
thermal energy from the concentrated sunlight.
Heat Transfer: The absorbed heat is transferred to a heat transfer fluid, such as oil or water,
that circulates through the receiver. Heated fluid can be used directly for thermal applications
or further utilized for power generation through a heat exchanger and turbine system.

Construction of Line Focus Collectors

Reflector: The line focus collector consists of a reflective surface, usually a curved mirror or
a set of mirrors arranged in a parabolic or trough shape. The reflector focuses sunlight onto a
specific line or area.
Receiver: The receiver is positioned along the focal line of the reflector, where the
concentrated sunlight is directed. It absorbs the solar radiation and converts it into thermal
energy. The receiver can be a pipe, a tube, or a heat-absorbing material.

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Support Structure: The collector is supported by a framework that holds the reflector and
receiver in the proper alignment.

Advantages of Line Focus Collectors

Higher Efficiency: Line focus collectors can achieve higher solar energy concentration,
resulting in higher thermal efficiency compared to flat plate collectors.
Versatility: Line focus collectors can be used for various applications, including power
generation, industrial process heat, and solar water heating.
Reduced Material Requirement: The concentration of sunlight reduces the required surface
area of the collector, making it more cost-effective in terms of material usage.

Disadvantages of Line Focus Collectors

Tracking Requirement: Line focus collectors typically require sun-tracking mechanisms to
follow the sun's movement throughout the day, which adds complexity and cost to the system.
Higher Maintenance: The reflective surfaces of the collector may require regular cleaning
and maintenance to ensure optimal performance.
Potential for Thermal Losses: Concentrated solar energy is prone to higher thermal losses
due to factors such as reflection losses and heat dissipation from the receiver.

Point-Focus or Parabolic Dish Collectors

A point focus or parabolic dish collector is a type of solar thermal collector that uses a parabolic
dish-shaped reflector to concentrate sunlight onto a focal point.

Figure 32. Schematic Representation of Point Focus Collectors

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Working of Point Focus Collectors
Sunlight Concentration: The parabolic dish reflector is designed to concentrate sunlight onto
a single focal point. The curved shape of the reflector ensures that incoming parallel rays are
reflected and focused onto the receiver.
Solar Energy Absorption: The receiver, positioned at the focal point, absorbs the
concentrated solar radiation. Depending on the application, the receiver can be a heat-absorbing
material that directly absorbs the thermal energy or a heat exchanger that transfers the heat to
a working fluid.
Heat Conversion: The absorbed solar energy is converted into usable heat. In some
applications, the heat-absorbing material can be directly used for heating or cooking. In power
generation systems, the heat is often used to drive a Stirling engine or a heat exchanger, which
generates electricity or mechanical power.

Construction of Point Focus Collectors

Parabolic Dish Reflector: The collector consists of a parabolic-shaped dish reflector, typically
made of a highly reflective material such as polished metal or glass. The reflector is curved in
a way that focuses incoming sunlight onto a single focal point.
Receiver: At the focal point of the parabolic dish, a receiver is positioned to absorb and convert
the concentrated solar energy into thermal energy. The receiver is usually located at the center
of the dish and can be a heat-absorbing material, a heat exchanger, or a Stirling engine.
Support Structure: The parabolic dish is supported by a framework that holds the reflector
and receiver in place and allows for proper alignment.

Advantages of Point Focus Collectors

High Concentration and Efficiency: Parabolic dish collectors can achieve very high solar
energy concentration, resulting in high thermal efficiency and the potential for high-
temperature applications.
Versatility: Point focus collectors can be used for various applications, including power
generation, high-temperature industrial processes, and solar cooking.
Scalability: The size of parabolic dish collectors can be easily scaled up or down, allowing for
flexibility in system design and installation.

Disadvantages of Point Focus Collectors

Sun Tracking Requirement: Parabolic dish collectors need to be continuously tracked to
follow the sun's movement throughout the day for optimal performance. This requires a reliable
sun-tracking mechanism, which adds complexity and cost to the system.

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Limited Field of Concentration: The concentrated solar energy is confined to a small focal
point, which limits the size of the area where useful heat is produced.
Higher Maintenance: The reflective surfaces of the collector need to be kept clean and well-
maintained to ensure efficient operation.

3.2.5. Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Figure 33. Schematic Representation of Passive Solar Heating and Cooling of House
Construction: The building is equipped with ventilation openings and features a black wall on
the left side.
a) Winter Operation:
In winter, the outer ventilation openings are closed. The black wall, being an absorber of solar
heat, absorbs more heat than other surfaces. As a result, the air adjacent to the black wall gets
heated. Due to the upward movement of hot air, it replaces the colder air in the upper part of
the room. Simultaneously, the cooler air from the room moves towards the location of the black

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wall, where it also gets heated. This creates a continuous circulation of hotter air throughout
the room, maintaining a warmer indoor environment during winter.
b) Summer Operation:
In summer, the outer ventilation openings are kept open. When sunlight falls on the black wall,
it heats the air in contact with it. As the air becomes heated, it becomes lighter and rises
upwards. To fill the resulting vacuum, air from the room flows towards the black wall, causing
cooler air from the outside to enter the room. This process continues, facilitating a constant
exchange of air inside the room passively. The continuous circulation of air helps to keep the
room cooler during the summer months.

3.2.6. Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Conversion

Science of Semiconductor: Background
Information
• A semiconductor is an element with electrical
properties between those of a conductor and
an insulator and therefore best
semiconductors (Si & Ge) have four valence
electrons i.e., tetravalent.
• Silicon is semiconductor of choice –
abundant on earth after oxygen.
• At 0 K, all valence electrons are engaged in
covalent bonds – insulator.
• The disruption of a bond by thermal agitation
(energy from sunlight) creates a pair of
carriers—an electron and a hole imparting
some degree of conductivity to the material.
• As the temperature is increased, some
of the covalent bonds are broken and
electrons become free.
• The excited electron leaves behind a
vacant space (hole), which can be
filled by another electron.
• When an electron in valence band
receives sufficient energy to
overcome energy gap, EG, it jumps to
next higher band known as conduction band.
• This leaves behind a hole in valence band. The pairing is called Electron Hole Pair.
• Intrinsic - the number of free (conduction) electrons is exactly equal to the number of
holes.

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 • Extrinsic - the conductivity of a
semiconductor can be increased
by adding impurity atoms to
intrinsic semiconductor. The
process is known as doping.
• N-type silicon – doped with
pentavalent atoms (Arsenic,
Antimony, Bismuth). One extra
electron from donors.
• P-type silicon - doped with
trivalent atoms (Aluminium,
Boron, Gallium). One extra hole
from acceptors.
• More doping means more conductive silicon. Also, semiconductors have an electric
conductivity that increases with temperature.

3.2.7. Solar Cell Fundamentals

A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic (PV) cell, is a device that converts sunlight directly
into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. It operates based on the principles of a
PN junction diode.
Working of Solar Cell

Figure 34. Operation of a Photovoltaic Cell

The solar cell consists of a semiconductor material, commonly silicon, which is carefully
treated to form a PN junction. The PN junction creates a depletion layer where there is an
electric field present. When the cell is in equilibrium, the electrons of the silicon atoms reside
in the valence band, while the conduction band remains empty.
When sunlight, composed of photons, strikes the solar cell, some photons are absorbed by the
semiconductor material. This absorption process transfers energy to the electrons, causing them
to be excited and move from the valence band to the conduction band. This phenomenon is
known as the photoelectric effect.
Within the PN junction, the electric field created by the depletion layer facilitates the separation
of the excited electrons and the resulting electron-hole pairs. The electric field causes the

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electrons to be accelerated towards the n-region, and the holes to be accelerated towards the p-
region.
Due to the electric field, the excited electrons and holes are prevented from immediately
recombining. When the electron-hole pair is formed within the depletion layer, the electrons
move to the n-region and the holes move to the p-region before recombination can occur. This
accumulation of charge carriers in their respective regions creates a voltage across the PN
junction diode.
By connecting a DC load, such as a bulb, across the solar cell, the accumulated voltage can
drive a current through the load. The flow of electrons through the load generates electrical
power, which can be used to power devices or stored in batteries for later use.

Figure 35. Typical Solar Cell

Solar Cell, Module and Array

Figure 36. Solar Cell, Module and Array Representation

Solar Cell: A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic (PV) cell, is the basic building block of
a solar panel.
Solar Module: A solar module, also called a solar panel, is an assembly of multiple solar cells
interconnected and encapsulated to form a single unit. The solar cells within the module are
connected in series or parallel to increase the voltage or current output.

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Solar Array: A solar array refers to a collection of interconnected solar modules. It consists
of multiple solar panels arranged in a specific configuration to generate a larger amount of
electrical power. Solar arrays can be composed of a few modules for small-scale applications
or thousands of modules for large-scale solar power plants.

3.2.8. IV Characteristics of Solar Cell

Figure 37. IV Characteristics of Solar Cell

The IV (current voltage) graph of a solar cell visually represents the relationship between the
current (I) and voltage (V) across the cell under different operating conditions. It is a
fundamental tool for understanding the behavior and performance of a solar cell. The IV graph
typically exhibits the following key features:
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc): On the IV graph, the open circuit voltage (Voc) is represented
as the voltage at the point where the current (I) is zero. At this point, the solar cell is not
connected to any external load, and there is no current flowing through the cell. The open
circuit voltage represents the maximum voltage that the solar cell can produce under ideal
conditions.
Short Circuit Current (Isc): On the IV graph, the short circuit current (Isc) is represented as
the current at the point where the voltage (V) is zero. This occurs when the solar cell is short-
circuited, meaning that the positive and negative terminals are directly connected without any
external load. In this case, the solar cell generates its maximum current output.
Maximum Power Point (MPP): The IV graph also shows the maximum power point (MPP)
of the solar cell. It is the point on the graph where the solar cell operates at its maximum power
output. The MPP occurs at a specific voltage (Vmp) and current (Imp) combination, which
represents the most efficient operating point of the solar cell.
Current at Maximum Power (Imp) – It is the current that results in maximum power. Imp is
also called the “Rated” current of the cell.
Voltage at Maximum Power (Vmp) – The voltage that results in maximum power output is
called Voltage at maximum power. Vmp is also called “Rated” voltage of the cell.

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Fill Factor (FF) – The fill factor is a figure of merit that indicates the “squareness” of the I-V
curve. It is the ratio of the actual maximum power Pmax to the unattainable but ideal power
that would result from operating at Isc and Voc.
𝐼𝑚𝑝 × 𝑉𝑚𝑝
𝐹𝐹 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐 × 𝑉𝑜𝑐
Shape of the IV Curve: The IV graph of a solar cell typically follows a characteristic shape.
At low voltages, the current increases rapidly as the voltage increases. As the voltage increases
further, the current gradually reaches a saturation point, and the curve levels off. This saturation
point corresponds to the maximum power point.

3.2.9. Classification of Solar Cells

The solar cells are classified into three generations according to the development in the cell
technology.
a. First Generation Solar Cells:
The first generation of cell technology is based upon bulk crystalline structure of various
semiconductor materials. They include mono and multi-crystalline solar cells.
b. Second Generation Solar Cells:
The second generation of solar cells are thin film type cells. They include amorphous solar
cells. If a silicon film is deposited on glass or another substrate material, this is a so-called
amorphous or thin layer cell. The layer thickness amounts to less than 1 micrometer.
c. Third Generation Solar Cells:
The third generation PV technology is a new concept based on different conversion principles
that allow the solar energy conversion value to be more closely approached to the maximum
efficiency. The examples of third generation solar cells are dye-sensitized solar cells, quantum
dot solar cells, etc.

3.3. PV Systems

3.3.1. Components of PV Systems

A photovoltaic (PV) system consists of several components that work together to convert solar
energy into electricity.
a. Solar Panels (Photovoltaic Modules):
Solar panels, also known as photovoltaic modules, are the most recognizable component of a
PV system. They are made up of multiple interconnected solar cells, typically made of silicon,
which convert sunlight directly into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. Solar panels
come in various sizes and capacities, and they are designed to capture and convert as much
sunlight as possible.
b. Charge Controller:
A charge controller, also known as a charge regulator, is an essential component of a PV
system. It regulates the charging of the battery bank by managing the flow of current from the

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solar panels. The charge controller ensures that the batteries are charged efficiently and protects
them from overcharging or damage due to excessive voltage or current.
c. Battery Bank:
The battery bank stores the electricity generated by the PV system for later use. It provides a
reliable power source during periods of low sunlight or at night when the solar panels are not
producing electricity. The battery bank typically consists of multiple batteries connected in
series or parallel to meet the energy storage requirements of the system.
d. Inverter:
An inverter is a crucial component of a PV system as it converts the DC (direct current)
electricity generated by the solar panels into AC (alternating current) electricity, which is
suitable for use in most electrical appliances and the grid. Inverters ensure that the electricity
produced by the PV system is compatible with the electrical loads in homes, buildings, or the
utility grid.
e. DC and AC Loads:
DC loads refer to the electrical appliances or devices that can directly use the DC electricity
produced by the PV system, such as DC lights, fans, or small electronic devices. AC loads, on
the other hand, are electrical appliances that require AC electricity, such as household
appliances, air conditioners, or industrial machinery. The PV system can power both DC and
AC loads through the use of appropriate wiring and connections.

Figure 38. PV System Components

Introduction to Energy Engineering MEC 114 P. Timilsina

3.3.2. Operation and Installation of PV systems
Solar panels capture sunlight and convert it into DC electricity. This DC power is then directed
to the charge controller, which regulates the flow of electricity and ensures efficient charging
of the battery bank. The battery bank stores excess electricity for later use, providing a backup
power source. The DC power can be used directly to power DC loads, while an inverter
converts DC power into AC power for powering AC loads.

3.3.3. Concept of Stand-alone PV and Grid Connected Systems

Stand-alone PV Systems:
• Stand-alone PV systems, also known as off-grid systems, are designed to operate
independently without any connection to the utility grid. They are commonly used in
remote areas where grid electricity is not available or in situations where individuals prefer
to have their own independent power source.
• In a stand-alone PV system, the solar panels generate electricity during the day, which is
then stored in batteries for use during nighttime or periods of low sunlight. The batteries
serve as an energy reservoir, providing power when the solar panels are not producing
electricity.
• Stand-alone PV systems are suitable for applications such as remote homes, cabins,
telecommunications systems, and water pumping stations. They provide a reliable and
independent source of electricity, allowing individuals to have power even in locations
without access to the utility grid.

Introduction to Energy Engineering MEC 114 P. Timilsina

Grid-connected PV Systems:
• Grid-connected PV systems, also known as grid-tied systems, are connected to the utility
grid and work in conjunction with it. These systems generate electricity from solar panels
and feed it into the grid, offsetting the need for power from the utility company.
• In a grid-connected system, when the solar panels produce more electricity than is being
consumed, the excess power is fed into the grid. Conversely, when the demand exceeds the
solar panel output, electricity is drawn from the grid. This bidirectional flow of electricity
allows for efficient utilization of solar energy while maintaining a reliable power supply.
• Grid-connected PV systems do not require batteries for energy storage, as any surplus
energy is automatically fed into the grid and credited to the owner through net metering or
feed-in tariff schemes. This means that energy generated during the day can be used at night
or during periods of low solar radiation.
• Grid-connected PV systems are commonly used in residential, commercial, and industrial
settings. They offer benefits such as reduced electricity bills, potential financial incentives,
and environmental sustainability by reducing reliance on fossil fuel-based electricity
generation.

3.3.4. Solar PV Applications

• Rural electrification
• lighting and power supplies for building
• street lighting
• individual house systems
• battery charging
• mini grids
• Water pumping and treatment systems
• pumping for drinking water
• pumping for irrigation
• ice production
• water purification
• Health care systems
• lighting in rural clinics
• vaccine refrigeration
• ice pack freezing for vaccine carriers.
• sterilises
• blood storage refrigerators
• Communications
• remote TV and radio receivers
• remote weather measuring
• mobile radios

Introduction to Energy Engineering MEC 114 P. Timilsina

 • rural telephone
• data acquisition and transmission (for example, river levels and seismographs)
• Transport aids
• road sign lighting
• railway crossings and signals
• hazard and warning lights
• navigation buoy
• road markers
• Security systems
• security lighting
• remote alarm system
• electric fences
• Miscellaneous
• calculators
• pumping and automated feeding systems on fish farms
• solar water heater circulation pumps
• boat / ship power
• earthquake monitoring systems
• emergency power for disaster relief

3.3.5. Advantages and Limitations of PV

Advantages
Cost Effective: In many instances, life cycle cost for pv system is lower than for non-renewable
alternatives, including power grid extension.
Reliability: PV is often the preferred power option for critical applications that requires a
constant, predictable energy supply such as telecommunication equipment, health care,
military etc.
Transportability: Easy transport because it is modular in nature. System could be shifted for
one place to another place easily.
Construction time: Low compared to other energy sources installations.
Environment friendly: clean production of energy, alternative to fossil fuels, almost zero
pollution, no moving parts, no noise pollution etc.
Low Maintenance: Little servicing and no refueling makes PV systems feasible, especially in
remote areas.
Flexible Size: Supply for pocket calculators to megawatts power plants
Free: The fuel is widely available freely in nature. Also free from political disturbances

Introduction to Energy Engineering MEC 114 P. Timilsina

Locally generated power: PV make rise of a local resources-sunlight. This enhances greater
energy security and control of access of energy.
Supplementary Unit: Utility grid connection, Water Pumping to high demand.

Limitations
• Sun Dependent
• High Initial Cost
• System Maintenance
• Disposal in case battery
• Storage device is needed.
• Solar intensity is generally low, large area of solar cell modules are required to generate
sufficient power.
• The conversion efficiency of solar cell is limited to 30%.

3.3.6. Solar Energy Potential in Nepal

Solar electricity is better suited in some regions of Nepal than other forms of electricity because
of the following regions.
• The extension of grid-based electricity is more expensive than the stand-alone solar
electricity.
• Difficult terrain and Remoteness
• Scattered and Sparse population
• Lower load densities
• Lower utilization rates

Nepal, located in South Asia, is positioned between latitudes 26° and 30° North and longitudes
80° and 88° East. This geographical location places Nepal in a region with higher sunny days
and direct sunlight. The country is situated in the northern hemisphere, where it receives
abundant sunshine due to its proximity to the equator.
Being situated in the Himalayan region, Nepal benefits from the unique topography and
atmospheric conditions that contribute to an extended duration of clear skies and ample
sunlight. The higher elevation of many regions in Nepal further enhances the availability of
direct sunlight. As the sun's rays traverse through less atmosphere at higher altitudes, they are
less scattered and can reach the surface with greater intensity, increasing the solar radiation
received.
Overall, Nepal's geographical location, characterized by its proximity to the equator,
mountainous terrain, and higher elevation, provides the country with favorable conditions for
harnessing solar energy. These factors contribute to the country's higher number of sunny days
and direct sunlight, making solar energy an abundant and viable resource for meeting Nepal's
energy needs.

Introduction to Energy Engineering MEC 114 P. Timilsina

3.4. Introductory Design and Sizing of Solar Photovoltaic Systems

3.4.1. Load Calculations

• Load calculation involves determining the electrical energy requirements of the system by
considering the various appliances and devices that will be powered by the photovoltaic
(PV) system.
• Accurate load knowledge is crucial for designing an efficient PV system. This includes
understanding the power ratings, usage patterns, and efficiency of the loads.
• Load profiles throughout the year help in analyzing the seasonal variations in energy
demand and designing the system to meet the peak load requirements.
• Load is calculated in watt-hours (Wh), which represents the energy consumed by the load
over a specific period of time. Alternatively, load calculation can be expressed in ampere-
hours (Ah) by dividing the watt-hours by the system voltage.
Table 1. Sample Load Calculation Table

DC/AC device Device Watts Hours of daily use Average Wh per day
i =1 to N, where
N is the total
number of
devices

3.4.2. Module/Array Sizing

• Module/array sizing involves determining the appropriate number and configuration of
PV modules to meet the energy demand of the load.
• Environmental factors such as the solar insolation at the location, ambient temperature
extremes, latitude, longitude, and module mounting techniques are considered.
• Load information, including the total watt-hours and ampere-hours consumed per day, as
well as any seasonal distribution of load pattern, is considered for accurate sizing.
• Current Calculation: If a single array cannot provide total current, then the array is
connected in parallel.
• Voltage Calculation: If a single Array cannot provide the required voltage array is
connected in series.
• Ns = nominal system voltage / nominal module voltage
• Np= Iarray/Imp
• Total panels used, Nt = Ns * Np

Introduction to Energy Engineering MEC 114 P. Timilsina

3.4.3. Battery System Sizing
The battery system sizing depends on the following factors:
• Type of system and mode of operation
• Size and weight
• Battery autonomy
• Max. allowable DOD (Depth of Discharge)
• Temperature and environmental conditions
• Cycle life and calendar life
• Reputation of the manufacturer
• Sealed or unsealed
• Self-discharge rate
• Charging characteristics
• Gassing characteristics
• Susceptibility to freezing
• Susceptibility to sulphation
• Electrolyte concentration
• Terminal configuration
• Maintenance requirements
• Cost factor
• Warranty period
• After-sales-services
• Disposal regulations
• Maximum cell capacity

DOD refers to the percentage of battery capacity that can be discharged before recharging. It
is important to determine the DOD to optimize battery life and ensure reliable operation.
Battery autonomy is the duration for which the battery can support the load during periods of
insufficient sunlight. It depends on the load requirements and the availability of solar energy.

𝑫𝑨𝒉 ∗ 𝑫𝑶𝑨
𝐂=
𝑫𝑶𝑫 ∗ 𝑬𝑭𝑭
C is the required capacity of the battery bank in Ampere-hour
DAh = daily load in Ampere-hour.
DOA = Days of autonomy
DOD = Max. allowable depth of discharge (say 0.8 for deep cycle batteries)
EFF = Efficiency of the battery system (generally 0.7 to 0.9)

Introduction to Energy Engineering MEC 114 P. Timilsina

Depending upon the requirements, the battery system is created by arranging different batteries
in series and parallel.
• Series Connection of Battery: Batteries connected in series have only one path for the
current to flow and the total voltage is the sum of the individual battery voltages.
• Parallel Connection of Batteries: Batteries connected in parallel have more than one
path for the current to flow and the voltage across the entire circuit is the same voltage as
across the individual parallel branch.

3.4.4. Sizing of Charge Controller

The charge controller should be matching to the system voltage and should be able to support
the maximum current that can pass through the system. The maximum current is passed through
the system when all the available appliances are used all at once. The charge regulator should
be designed to withstand such maximum current.

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∑ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠⁄𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

3.4.5. Sizing of Cable

The wire or cable should be able to withstand the maximum current that is produced and that
flows in the PV system. The size of the cable is determined by the following formula.
𝟎. 𝟑𝑳𝑰𝒎
𝑺=
∆𝑽
S – Required wire size (cross-sectional area of the copper wire in sq.mm),
L – Length of the wire in meters,
Im – The maximum current in Ampere, and
∆V – Maximum allowable voltage drop in percent.

3.4.6. Choice of System Voltage

System voltage is chosen based on the size of the load and designer’s experience.
Rule of thumb:
• For energy demand less than 2000Wh, use 12V battery system.
• For energy demand more than 2000Wh and less than 7000 Wh, use 24V battery system.
• For energy demand more than 7000Wh, use 48V battery system.

Introduction to Energy Engineering MEC 114 P. Timilsina