UNIT III:

Digital Signatures: Elgamal Digital Signature Scheme, Schnorr Digital Signature NIST Digital Signature
Algorithm
Electronic Mail Security: Internet Mail Architecture, Email Formats, Email Threats
and Comprehensive Email Security, S/MIME. IP Security: IP Security Policy,
Encapsulating Security Payload, Combining Security Associations Internet Key Exchange

Digital Signatures: Elgamal Digital Signature Scheme:

The ElGamal Digital Signature Scheme is a cryptographic algorithm used to ensure the authenticity and
integrity of a message. It is based on the ElGamal encryption system and relies on the difficulty of the discrete
logarithm problem for security.
ElGamal Digital Signature Scheme
 The ElGamal Digital Signature Scheme is a public key cryptographic
algorithm used for generating and verifying digital signatures. It is
based on the principles of the ElGamal encryption system and the
discrete logarithm problem.
ElGamal Digital Signature Scheme
 The ElGamal Digital Signature Scheme is a public key cryptographic
algorithm used for generating and verifying digital signatures. It is
based on the principles of the ElGamal encryption system and the
discrete logarithm probl

Overview of ElGamal Digital Signature Scheme Overview of ElGamal Digital Signature Scheme

It involves three main processes:

1. Key Generation
2. Signature Generation
3. Signature Verification

1. Key Generation

Choose a generator g of the multiplicative group of integers modulo p, i.e., g ∈ Zₚ*.

 Choose a large prime number p.

 Select a private key x, where 1 < x < p−1.
 Compute the public key: y = g^x mod p.

Public key: (p, g, y)

Private key: x

2. Signature Generation

To sign a message M:

1. Choose a random number k such that 1 < k < p−1 and gcd(k, p−1) = 1.
2. Compute r = g^k mod p.
3. Compute k⁻¹ mod (p−1) (the modular inverse of k).
4. Compute the hash of the message H(M).
5. Compute s = k⁻¹ (H(M) − x·r) mod (p−1).
 Signature: (r, s)

3. Signature Verification

To verify a signature (r, s) on message M:

1. Check that 0 < r < p and 0 < s < p−1.

2. Compute H(M).
3. Check whether:

yr⋅rs≡gH(M)mod py^r \cdot r^s \equiv g^{H(M)} \mod pyr⋅rs≡gH(M)modp

If the equality holds, the signature is valid.

Security Basis

 Based on the discrete logarithm problem.

 The randomness of k is crucial—reusing k can expose the private key.
 Hashing the message (H(M)) adds resistance to forgery and collision attacks.

Schnorr Digital Signature NIST Digital Signature Algorithm

The Schnorr digital signature scheme and the NIST Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) are both digital
signature algorithms, but they differ in their design and security properties

The Schnorr digital signature scheme is a method for creating digital signatures based on the difficulty of
solving the discrete logarithm problem. It involves choosing a public key, a private key, and a random number,
then performing mathematical operations to generate a signature for a message. This signature can then be
verified using the public key and the message.
Key Steps in the Schnorr Signature Scheme:
1. 1. Key Generation:
 Choose a large prime number p and its prime factor q.
 Choose an integer α such that α^q = 1 mod p.
 Choose a private key s with 0 < s < q.
 Calculate the public key v = α^s mod p.
2. 2. Signature Generation:
 Choose a random integer r with 0 < r < q.
 Calculate x = α^r mod p.
 Hash the message M and x to get a challenge e = H(M || x).
 Compute the signature value y = (r + s * e) mod q.
 The signature is the pair (y, e).
3. 3. Signature Verification:
 The verifier calculates x' = α^y * v^e mod p.
  If x' = x (the original value calculated during signature generation) and e = H(M || x) (the same
hash value), the signature is valid.

Example:
Let's assume we have the following parameters:
 p = 17
 q=5
 α=2
 Private key s = 3
 Message M = "Hello, World!"
 Hash function H = SHA256
1. Key Generation:
 Public key v = α^s mod p = 2^3 mod 17 = 8 mod 17 = 8.
2. Signature Generation:
 Random number r = 4.
 x = α^r mod p = 2^4 mod 17 = 16 mod 17 = 16.
 Hash e = H("Hello, World!" || 16) = 0x.... (The actual hash value would depend on the SHA256
implementation)
 y = (r + s * e) mod q = (4 + 3 * e) mod 5 = (4 + 3 * 0x...) mod 5 = ... mod 5.
 The signature is (y, e).
3. Verification:
 The verifier calculates x' = α^y * v^e mod p = 2^y * 8^e mod 17.
 If x' = 16 and e = 0x... (the same hash), the signature is valid.
Here's a more detailed explanation:
Key Features and Uses:
 Asymmetric Encryption:
DSA uses a pair of keys, a public key and a private key, for digital signature generation and verification.
 Digital Signature Generation:
The private key is used to create a signature that proves the message's authenticity and integrity.
 Digital Signature Verification:
The public key is used to verify the signature, confirming the message's origin and that it hasn't been
tampered with.
 Applications:
DSA is used in various applications, including:
 Authenticating the sender of a message.
 Ensuring the integrity of data, preventing unauthorized changes.
 Providing non-repudiation, meaning the sender cannot deny sending a message.
 Security:
DSA relies on the difficulty of solving discrete logarithm problems to ensure security.
 NIST's Role:
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) standardized DSA as part of the Digital
Signature Standard (DSS) to provide a reliable and secure method for digital signatures.
How DSA Works:
1. 1. Key Generation:
A pair of public and private keys is generated using a mathematical process based on prime numbers and
their properties.
2. 2. Signature Generation:
 A random number is generated.
 The message is hashed using a cryptographic hash function (e.g., SHA-256, SHA-3).
 The signature is generated by performing calculations using the hash, the random number, the
private key, and other parameters.
3. 3. Signature Verification:
 The receiver uses the sender's public key to verify the signature.
 The receiver also uses the same hash function used by the sender.
 By performing calculations with the public key, the hash, and the signature, the receiver can
confirm that the signature is valid and that the message hasn't been altered.

Electronic Mail Security

Internet Mail Architecture

At a high level, the email system involves the following major components:

1. User Agents (UA)

2. Mail Transfer Agents (MTA)
3. Mail Delivery Agents (MDA)
4. Message Stores
5. Mail Access Agents (MAA)

. User Agent (UA)

 Email client software (e.g., Outlook, Thunderbird).

 Allows users to compose, send, receive, and read emails.

2. Mail Transfer Agent (MTA)

 Responsible for routing and forwarding email.

 Examples: Sendmail, Postfix, Exim.
 Uses SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) to send emails between servers.
3. Mail Delivery Agent (MDA)

 Delivers mail to the recipient's mailbox on the server.

 Accepts messages from the MTA and places them in the user's inbox.

4. Message Stores

 Storage area (e.g., mbox or Maildir format) where emails reside until retrieved.
 Managed by the server hosting the user's mailbox.

5. Mail Access Agent (MAA)

 Allows users to access their mailbox remotely.

 Protocols:
o POP3 (Post Office Protocol v3): Downloads and deletes mail from server.
o IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Allows online access and mail folder
management.

🔄 Email Flow: Step-by-Step

1. Composition & Submission

o UA uses SMTP to submit the message to an MTA.
2. Relaying & Routing
o MTA relays the email across the internet (through multiple MTAs if needed).
3. Delivery
o The final MTA passes the message to the MDA for storage in the recipient's mailbox.
4. Access
o The recipient’s UA retrieves the email using an MAA (via IMAP or POP3).

📡 Common Protocols Used

Protocol Purpose Used By

SMTP Sending mail UA → MTA, MTA → MTA

POP3 Downloading mail UA ← MAA

IMAP Managing/accessing mail UA ↔ MAA

E-Mail Format
Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of the most widely used services of the Internet. This service allows an
Internet user to send a message in a formatted manner (mail) to other Internet users in any part of the
world. Message in the mail not only contain text, but it also contains images, audio and videos data. The
person who is sending mail is called sender and person who receives mail is called the recipient. It is just
like postal mail service.
Format of E-mail :
An e-mail consists of three parts that are as follows :
1)Envelope
2. Header
3. Body
These are explained as following below.
1. Envelope :
The envelope part encapsulates the message. It contains all information that is required for sending any e-
mail such as destination address, priority and security level. The envelope is used by MTAs for routing
message.
2. Header :
The header consists of a series of lines. Each header field consists of a single line of ASCII text specifying
field name, colon and value. The main header fields related to message transport are :
1. To: It specifies the DNS address of the primary recipient(s).
2. Cc : It refers to carbon copy. It specifies address of secondary recipient(s).
3. BCC: It refers to blind carbon copy. It is very similar to Cc. The only difference between Cc
and Bcc is that it allow user to send copy to the third party without primary and secondary
recipient knowing about this.
4. From : It specifies name of person who wrote message.
5. Sender : It specifies e-mail address of person who has sent message.
6. Received : It refers to identity of sender’s, data and also time message was received. It also
contains the information which is used to find bugs in routing system.
7. Return-Path: It is added by the message transfer agent. This part is used to specify how to get
back to the sender.
3. Body:- The body of a message contains text that is the actual content/message that needs to be sent, such
as “Employees who are eligible for the new health care program should contact their supervisors by next
Friday if they want to switch.” The message body also may include signatures or automatically generated
text that is inserted by the sender’s email system.
The above-discussed field is represented in tabular form as follows :

Header Meaning

To: E-mail address of primary receipt(s).

Cc: E-mail address of secondary receipt(s).

 Header Meaning

Bcc: E-mail address for blind carbon copies.

From: Person or people who have created a message.

Sender: E-mail address of the actual sender.

Received: It is used to specify how to get back to the sender.

Return-
It can be used to identify a path back to the sender.
Path

In addition to above-discussed fields, the header may also contain a variety of other fields which are as
follows :

Header Meaning

Date: Date and time when the message was sent.

Reply-To: It contains e-mail address to which replies should be sent.

It refers to the unique number for referencing this message

Message-Id:
later.

In-Reply-To: Message-Id of a message to which this is as a reply.

References: It contains other relevant message-ids.

Keywords: User-chosen keywords.

Subject: It contains short summary of message for one-line display.

Email Threats and Comprehensive Email Security

Email threats like phishing, malware, and ransomware pose significant risks to individuals and organizations,
leading to data breaches, financial losses, and reputational damage. Comprehensive email security involves a
multi-layered approach, including implementing strong passwords, enabling multi-factor authentication, keeping
software up-to-date, and educating users about phishing and other email threats.
Email Threats:
 Phishing: Attackers impersonate legitimate entities to trick users into revealing sensitive information
or clicking malicious links.
 Malware: Harmful software, such as viruses and ransomware, can be delivered through email
attachments or links, damaging systems or encrypting files.
  Business Email Compromise (BEC): Attackers impersonate business contacts to steal money or
sensitive data.
 Spam: Unsolicited emails can carry malware or be used for phishing.
 Spoofing: Attackers forge email headers to make emails appear to originate from legitimate sources.
Comprehensive Email Security Measures:
 Strong Passwords & Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA):
Use unique, strong passwords for email accounts and enable MFA for an extra layer of security.
 Software Updates:
Keep email clients, operating systems, and other software updated to patch vulnerabilities.
 Antivirus and Anti-Malware Software:
Use reputable software to scan incoming and outgoing emails for threats.
 User Education:
Train users to identify phishing attempts, suspicious emails, and malicious attachments.
 Email Security Solutions:
Consider email security solutions that offer advanced threat protection, including URL and attachment
scanning, as well as spam filtering.
 Data Loss Prevention (DLP):
Implement DLP tools to monitor and prevent unauthorized transfer of sensitive data.
 Data Encryption:
Encrypt sensitive email content to protect it from unauthorized access during transmission and storage.
 Incident Response Plan:
Develop a plan to address data breaches and other email security incidents.
 Regular Backups:
Maintain regular backups of email data to ensure recovery in case of a breach.
S/MIME
S/MIME stands for Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions. Through encryption, S/MIME offers
protection for business emails. S/MIME comes under the concept of Cryptography. S/MIME is a protocol
used for encrypting or decrypting digitally signed E-mails. This means that users can digitally sign their
emails as the owner(sender) of the e-mail.
S/MIME is based on asymmetric cryptography which means that communications can be encrypted or
decrypted using a pair of related keys namely public and private keys.
How S/MIME works:
1. The sender uses their private key to digitally sign the email and encrypt it using the recipient's public
key.
2. The recipient uses their private key to decrypt the email and verifies the digital signature using the
sender's public key.
3. This process ensures that the email was sent by the claimed sender and has not been modified during
transit.
Benefits of using S/MIME:
 Confidentiality: Ensures that email content remains private and cannot be accessed by unauthorized
parties.
 Authentication: Verifies the sender's identity and ensures that the email is genuine.
 Integrity: Guarantees that the email hasn't been altered during transit.
 Enhanced Security: Provides a robust layer of security for email communications, reducing the risk of
phishing and other email-related threats
IP Security:
IP Security (IPSec) refers to a collection of communication rules or protocols used to establish secure
network connections. Internet Protocol (IP) is the common standard that controls how data is transmitted
across the internet. IPSec enhances the protocol security by introducing encryption and authentication.

IP Security Policy:
 An IP Security Policy defines how IPsec will be used to secure network traffic.
 It establishes rules for which traffic is protected, and the security services (authentication, integrity,
confidentiality) that should be applied.
 IPsec policies are essential for configuring and managing IPsec
IPSec majorly operates in two ways i.e. Transport Mode and Tunnel Mode.
To provide security, IPSec uses two main protocols: AH (Authentication Header) and ESP (Encapsulating
Security Payload).
Components of IP Security –
It has the following components:
1. Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) –
It provides data integrity, encryption, authentication and anti replay. It also provides
authentication for payload.
Working of ESP:
1. Encapsulating Security Payload supports both main Network layer protocols: IPv4 and IPv6
protocols.
2. It performs the functioning of encryption in headers of Internet Protocol or in general say, it
resides and performs functions in IP Header.
3. One important thing to note here is that the insertion of ESP is between Internet Protocol and
other protocols such as UDP/ TCP/ ICMP.
Modes in ESP:
Encapsulating Security Payload supports two modes, i.e. Transport mode, and tunnel mode.
Tunnel mode:
 1. Mandatory in Gateway, tunnel mode holds utmost importance.
2. Here, a new IP Header is created which is used as the outer IP Header followed by ESP.
Transport mode:
1. Here, IP Header is not protected via encryption or authentication, making it vulnerable to threats
2. Less processing is seen in this mode, so the inclusion of ESP is preferred

2. Authentication Header (AH) –

It also provides data integrity, authentication and anti replay and it does not provide encryption.
The anti replay protection, protects against unauthorized transmission of packets. It does not
protect data’s confidentiality.

Internet Key Exchange (IKE) –

It is a network security protocol designed to dynamically exchange encryption keys and find a way over
Security Association (SA) between 2 devices. The Security Association (SA) establishes shared security
attributes between 2 network entities to support secure communication. The Key Management Protocol
(ISAKMP) and Internet Security Association which provides a framework for authentication and key exchange.
ISAKMP tells how the set up of the Security Associations (SAs) and how direct connections between two hosts
that are using IPsec.
Internet Key Exchange (IKE) provides message content protection and also an open frame for implementing
standard algorithms such as SHA and MD5. The algorithm’s IP sec users produces a unique identifier for each
packet. This identifier then allows a device to determine whether a packet has been correct or not. Packets which
are not authorized are discarded and not given to receiver.