2025

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY.
MODULE: PHYSICS(IT123)
LECTURER: DOCTORIAL CANDIDATE Mr GODFREY BENJAMIN ZULU
STUDENT ID 1: 122-962
STUDENT ID 2:
STUDENT ID 3:
FACAULTY: BCOM
FARADAYS LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

electromagnetism, Faraday's law of induction describes how a changing magnetic field can
induce an electric current in a circuit. This phenomenon, known as electromagnetic induction,
is the fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and many types of electric
motors, generators and solenoids. [1][2] "Faraday's law" is used in the literature to refer to
two closely related but physically distinct statements. [3][4] One is the Maxwell–Faraday
equation, one of Maxwell's equations, which states that a time-varying magnetic field is
always accompanied by a circulating electric field. This law applies to the fields themselves
and does not require the presence of a physical circuit. The other is Faraday's flux rule, or the
Faraday–Lenz law, which relates the electromotive force (emf) around a closed conducting
loop to the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop. The flux rule accounts for
two mechanisms by which an emf can be generated. In transformer emf, a time-varying
magnetic field induces an electric field as described by the Maxwell–Faraday equation, and
the electric field drives a current around the loop. In motional emf, the circuit moves through
a magnetic field, and the emf arises from the magnetic component of the Lorentz force acting
on the charges in the conductor. Historically, the differing explanations for motional and
transformer emf posed a conceptual problem, since the observed current depends only on
relative motion, but the physical explanations were different in the two cases. In special
relativity, this distinction is understood as frame-dependent: what appears as a magnetic force
in one frame may appear as an induced electric field in another.
The magnetic flux (often denoted Φ or ΦB) through a surface is the component of the
magnetic field passing through that surface. The magnetic flux through some surface is
proportional to the number of field lines passing through that surface. The magnetic flux
passing through a surface of vector area A is
ΦB=B⋅A=BA cos θ
where B is the magnitude of the magnetic field (having the unit of Tesla, T), A is the area of
the surface, and θ is the angle between the magnetic field lines and the normal
(perpendicular) to A.
For a varying magnetic field, we first consider the magnetic flux d ΦB d ΦB through an
infinitesimal area element d A, where we may consider the field to be constant:

Varying Magnetic Field: Each point on a surface is associated with a direction, called the
surface normal; the magnetic flux through a point is then the component of the magnetic field
along this normal direction.
A generic surface, A, can then be broken into infinitesimal elements and the total magnetic
flux through the surface is then the surface integral
ΦB=∬A B⋅ d A (22.1.2)
Faraday’s Law of Induction and Lenz’ Law
Faraday’s law of induction states that the EMF induced by a change in magnetic flux is
EMF=−N Δ Φ Δ t
, when flux changes by Δ in a time Δ t.
Faraday’s Law of Induction and Lenz’ Law
Faraday’s law of induction states that the EMF induced by a change in magnetic flux
is EMF=−NΔ Φ Δ.t EMF=−NΔΦ Δ.t, when flux changes by Δ in a time Δ.t.
Faraday’s Law of Induction
Faraday’s law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism that predicts how a magnetic
field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF). It is the
fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical
motors, generators, and solenoids.
Faraday’s experiments showed that the EMF induced by a change in magnetic flux depends
on only a few factors. First, EMF is directly proportional to the change in flux Δ. Second,
EMF is greatest when the change in time Δ t is smallest—that is, EMF is inversely
proportional to Δ t. Finally, if a coil has N turns, an EMF will be produced that is N times
greater than for a single coil, so that EMF is directly proportional to N. The equation for the
EMF induced by a change in magnetic flux is
EMF=−N ΔΦΔ t
This relationship is known as Faraday’s law of induction. The units for EMF are volts, as is
usual.
Lenz’ Law
The minus sign in Faraday’s law of induction is very important. The minus means that the
EMF creates a current I and magnetic field B that oppose the change in flux this is known as
Lenz’ law. The direction (given by the minus sign) of the EMF is so important that it is called
Lenz’ law after the Russian Heinrich Lenz (1804–1865), who, like Faraday and Henry,
independently investigated aspects of induction. Faraday was aware of the direction, but Lenz
stated it, so he is credited for its discovery.
Lenz’ Law: (a) When this bar magnet is thrust into the coil, the strength of the magnetic field
increases in the coil. The current induced in the coil creates another field, in the opposite
direction of the bar magnet’s to oppose the increase. This is one aspect of Lenz’s law—
induction opposes any change in flux. (b) and (c) are two other situations. Verify for yourself
that the direction of the induced Bcoil shown indeed opposes the change in flux and that the
current direction shown is consistent with the right hand rule.
Energy Conservation
Lenz’ law is a manifestation of the conservation of energy. The induced EMF produces a
current that opposes the change in flux, because a change in flux means a change in energy.
Energy can enter or leave, but not instantaneously. Lenz’ law is a consequence. As the change
begins, the law says induction opposes and, thus, slows the change. In fact, if the induced
EMF were in the same direction as the change in flux, there would be a positive feedback that
would give us free energy from no apparent source—conservation of energy would be
violated.
Motional EMF
Motion in a magnetic field that is stationary relative to the Earth induces motional EMF
(electromotive force).
As seen in previous Atoms, any change in magnetic flux induces an electromotive force
(EMF) opposing that change—a process known as induction. Motion is one of the major
causes of induction. For example, a magnet moved toward a coil induces an EMF, and a coil
moved toward a magnet produces a similar EMF. In this Atom, we concentrate on motion in a
magnetic field that is stationary relative to the Earth, producing what is loosely called
motional EMF.
Motional EMF
Consider the situation shown in. A rod is moved at a speed v along a pair of conducting rails
separated by a distance ℓ in a uniform magnetic field B. The rails are stationary relative to B,
and are connected to a stationary resistor R (the resistor could be anything from a light bulb
to a voltmeter). Consider the area enclosed by the moving rod, rails and resistor. B is
perpendicular to this area, and the area is increasing as the rod moves. Thus the magnetic flux
enclosed by the rails, rod and resistor is increasing. When flux changes, an EMF is induced
according to Faraday’s law of induction.
Motional EMF: (a) A motional emf=Bℓv is induced between the rails when this rod moves
to the right in the uniform magnetic field. The magnetic field B is into the page,
perpendicular to the moving rod and rails and, hence, to the area enclosed by them. (b) Lenz’s
law gives the directions of the induced field and current, and the polarity of the induced emf.
Since the flux is increasing, the induced field is in the opposite direction, or out of the page.
Right hand rule gives the current direction shown, and the polarity of the rod will drive such a
current.
To find the magnitude of EMF induced along the moving rod, we use Faraday’s law of
induction without the sign:
EMF=N ΔΦΔ t
In this equation, N=1 and the flux Φ=BA cos θ. We have θ=0º and cos θ=1, since B is
perpendicular to A. Now Δ=Δ(BA)=BΔAΔ=Δ(BA)=BΔA, since B is uniform the area swept
out by the rod is ΔA=ℓx ΔA=ℓx. Entering these quantities into the expression for EMF
yields:
EMF=BΔAΔt=BlΔxΔt=Blv
To find the direction of the induced field, the direction of the current, and the polarity of the
induced EMF we apply Lenz’ law, as explained in Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz’ Law.
As seen in Fig 1 (b), F lux is increasing, since the area enclosed is increasing. Thus the
induced field must oppose the existing one and be out of the page. (The right hand rule
requires that I be counterclockwise, which in turn means the top of the rod is positive, as
shown. )
Electric Field vs. Magnetic Field
There are many connections between the electric force and the magnetic force. That a moving
magnetic field produces an electric field (and conversely that a moving electric field produces
a magnetic field) is part of the reason electric and magnetic forces are now considered
as different manifestations of the same force (first noticed by Albert Einstein). This classic
unification of electric and magnetic forces into what is called the electromagnetic force is the
inspiration for contemporary efforts to unify other basic forces.
Back EMF, Eddy Currents, and Magnetic Damping
Back EMF, eddy currents, and magnetic damping are all due to induced EMF and can be
explained by Faraday’s law of induction.
learning objectives
 Explain the relationship between the motional electromotive force, eddy currents, and
magnetic damping
Back EMF
Motors and generators are very similar. Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy, whereas motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. In addition to that
motors and generators have the same construction. When the coil of a motor is turned,
magnetic flux changes, and an electromotive force (EMF), consistent with Faraday’s law of
induction, is induced. The motor thus acts as a generator whenever its coil rotates. This will
happen whether the shaft is turned by an external input, like a belt drive, or by the action of
the motor itself. That is, when a motor is doing work and its shaft is turning, an EMF is
generated. Lenz’ law tells us the induced EMF opposes any change, so that the input EMF
that powers the motor will be opposed by the motor’s self-generated EMF, called the back
EMF of the motor.
Eddy Current
motional EMF is induced when a conductor moves in a magnetic field or when a magnetic
field moves relative to a conductor. If motional EMF can cause a current loop in the
conductor, we refer to that current as an eddy current. Eddy currents can produce significant
drag, called magnetic damping, on the motion involved.
furthermore the apparatus , which swings a pendulum bob between the poles of a strong
magnet. If the bob is metal, there is significant drag on the bob as it enters and leaves the
field, quickly damping the motion. If, however, the bob is a slotted metal plate, as shown in
(b), there is a much smaller effect due to the magnet. There is no discernible effect on a bob
made of an insulator.

Device for Exploring Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping: A common physics
demonstration device for exploring eddy currents and magnetic damping. (a) The motion of a
metal pendulum bob swinging between the poles of a magnet is quickly damped by the action
of eddy currents. (b) There is little effect on the motion of a slotted metal bob, implying that
eddy currents are made less effective. (c) There is also no magnetic damping on a
nonconducting bob, since the eddy currents are extremely small.
shows what happens to the metal plate as it enters and leaves the magnetic field. In both
cases, it experiences a force opposing its motion. As it enters from the left, flux increases, and
so an eddy current is set up (Faraday’s law) in the counterclockwise direction (Lenz’ law), as
shown. Only the right-hand side of the current loop is in the field, so that there is an
unopposed force on it to the left (right hand rule). When the metal plate is completely inside
the field, there is no eddy current if the field is uniform, since the flux remains constant in
this region. But when the plate leaves the field on the right, flux decreases, causing an eddy
current in the clockwise direction that, again, experiences a force to the left, further slowing
the motion. A similar analysis of what happens when the plate swings from the right toward
the left shows that its motion is also damped when entering and leaving the field.
Conducting Plate Passing Between the Poles of a Magnet: A more detailed look at the
conducting plate passing between the poles of a magnet. As it enters and leaves the field, the
change in flux produces an eddy current. Magnetic force on the current loop opposes the
motion. There is no current and no magnetic drag when the plate is completely inside the
uniform field.
When a slotted metal plate enters the field, as shown in, an EMF is induced by the change in
flux, but it is less effective because the slots limit the size of the current loops. Moreover,
adjacent loops have currents in opposite directions, and their effects cancel. When an
insulating material is used, the eddy current is extremely small, and so magnetic damping on
insulators is negligible. If eddy currents are to be avoided in conductors, then they can be
slotted or constructed of thin layers of conducting material separated by insulating sheets.
Eddy Currents Induced in a Slotted Metal Plate: Eddy currents induced in a slotted metal
plate entering a magnetic field form small loops, and the forces on them tend to cancel,
thereby making magnetic drag almost zero.
Changing Magnetic Flux Produces an Electric Field
Faraday’s law of induction states that changing magnetic field produces an electric
field: ε=−∂ΦB∂
We have studied Faraday’s law of induction in previous atoms. We researched the
relationship between induced electromotive force (EMF) and magnetic flux. In a nutshell, the
law states that changing magnetic field(dΦBdtdΦBdt) produces an electric field (εε),
Faraday’s law of induction is expressed as ε=−∂ΦB∂tε=−∂ΦB∂t, where εε is induced EMF
and dΦBdtdΦBdt is magnetic flux. (“N” is dropped from our previous expression. The
number of turns of coil is included can be incorporated in the magnetic flux, so the factor is
optional. ) Faraday’s law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism that predicts how a
magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF).
Faraday’s Experiment: Faraday’s experiment showing induction between coils of wire: The
liquid battery (right) provides a current which flows through the small coil (A), creating a
magnetic field. When the coils are stationary, no current is induced. But when the small coil
is moved in or out of the large coil (B), the magnetic flux through the large coil changes,
inducing a current which is detected by the galvanometer (G).
Electric Generators
Electric generators convert mechanical energy to electrical energy; they induce an EMF by
rotating a coil in a magnetic field.
Electric generators are devices that convert mechanical energy to electrical energy. They
induce an electromotive force (EMF) by rotating a coil in a magnetic field. It is a device that
converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electric charge (usually
carried by electrons) to flow through an external electrical circuit. Possible sources of
mechanical energy include: a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a
turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank,
compressed air, or any other source of mechanical energy. Generators supply almost all of the
power for the electric power grids which provide most of the world’s electric power.
Steam Turbine Generator: A modern steam turbine generator.
Basic Setup
the setup shown in. Charges in the wires of the loop experience the magnetic force because
they are moving in a magnetic field. Charges in the vertical wires experience forces parallel
to the wire, causing currents. However, those in the top and bottom segments feel a force
perpendicular to the wire; this force does not cause a current. We can thus find the induced
EMF by considering only the side wires. Motional EMF is given to be EMF=Bℓv, where the
velocity v is perpendicular to the magnetic field B (see our Atom on “Motional EMF”). Here,
the velocity is at an angle θ with B, so that its component perpendicular to B is v sin θ.
Diagram of an Electric Generator: A generator with a single rectangular coil rotated at
constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field produces an emf that varies sinusoidally
in time. the generator is similar to a motor, except the shaft is rotated to produce a current
rather than the other way around.
Thus in this case the EMF induced on each side is EMF=Bℓv sin θ, and they are in the same
direction. The total EMF ε around the loop is then:
ε=2Blvsinθ ,ε=2Blvsin⁡θ
This expression is valid, but it does not give EMF as a function of time. To find the time
dependence of EMF, we assume the coil rotates at a constant angular velocity ω. The angle θ
is related to angular velocity by θ=ωtθ=ωt, so that:
ε=2Blvsinωt, ε=2Blvsin⁡ωt
Now, linear velocity v is related to angular velocity by v=rωv=rω. Here r=w/2r=w/2, so
that v=(w/2)ωv=(w/2)ω, and:
ε=2Blw2ωsinωt=(lw)Bωsinωt(22.1.8)(22.1.8)ε=2Blw2ωsin⁡ωt=(lw)Bωsin⁡ωt
Noting that the area of the loop is A=ℓwA=ℓw, and allowing for N loops, we find that:
ε=NABwsinωtε=NABwsin⁡ωt is the EMF induced in a generator coil of N turns and area A
rotating at a constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field B.
Generators illustrated in this Atom look very much like the motors illustrated previously. This
is not coincidental. In fact, a motor becomes a generator when its shaft rotates.
Electric Motors
An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The basic principles of operation for a motor are the same as those for a generator, except that
a motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (motion). (Read our atom on
electric generators first. ) Most electric motors use the interaction of magnetic fields and
current-carrying conductors to generate force. Electric motors are found in applications as
diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power
tools, and disk drives.
Lorentz Force
If you were to place a moving charged particle in a magnetic field, it would experience a
force called the Lorentz force:
F=q × v× B

Right-Hand Rule: Right-hand rule showing the direction of the Lorentz force
where v is the speed of the moving charge, q is the charge, and B is the magnetic field.
Current in a conductor consists of moving charges. Therefore, a current-carrying coil in a
magnetic field will also feel the Lorentz force. For a straight current carrying wire that is not
moving, the Lorentz force is:
F=I ( L × B)
where F is the force (in newtons, N), I is the current in the wire (in amperes, A), L is the
length of the wire that is in the magnetic field (in m), and B is the magnetic field strength (in
tesla’s, T). The direction of the Lorentz force is perpendicular to both the direction of the
flow of current and the magnetic field and can be found using the right-hand rule, shown in.
Using your right hand, point your thumb in the direction of the current, and point your first
finger in the direction of the magnetic field. Your third finger will now be pointing in the
direction of the force.

Torque: The force on opposite sides of the coil will be in opposite directions because the
charges are moving in opposite directions. This means the coil will rotate.
Mechanics of a Motor
Both motors and generators can be explained in terms of a coil that rotates in a magnetic
field. In a generator the coil is attached to an external circuit that is then turned. This results
in a changing flux, which induces an electromagnetic field. In a motor, a current-carrying coil
in a magnetic field experiences a force on both sides of the coil, which creates a twisting
force (called a torque) that makes it turn. Any coil carrying current can feel a force in a
magnetic field. This force is the Lorentz force on the moving charges in the conductor. The
force on opposite sides of the coil will be in opposite directions because the charges are
moving in opposite directions. This means the coil will rotate.
Inductance
Inductance is the property of a device that tells how effectively it induces an electromotive
force in another device or on itself.
In addition Induction is the process in which an emf is induced by changing magnetic flux.
Transformers, for example, are designed to be particularly effective at inducing a desired
voltage and current with very little loss of energy to other forms.
Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance is the effect of Faraday’s law of induction for one device upon another,
such as the primary coil in transmitting energy to the secondary in a transformer. See, where

simple coils
induce emfs in one another. Mutual Inductance in Coils: These coils can induce emfs in one
another like an inefficient transformer. Their mutual inductance M indicates the effectiveness
of the coupling between them.
Self-Inductance
Self-inductance, the effect of Faraday’s law of induction of a device on itself, also exists.
When, for example, current through a coil is increased, the magnetic field and flux also
increase, inducing a counter emf, as required by Lenz’s law. Conversely, if the current is
decreased, an emf is induced that opposes the decrease. Most devices have a fixed geometry,
and so the change in flux is due entirely to the change in current ΔI through the device. The
induced emf is related to the physical geometry of the device and the rate of change of
current. It is given by
EMF=−LΔ IΔ t
where L is the self-inductance of the device. A device that exhibits significant self-inductance
is called an inductor. Again, the minus sign is an expression of Lenz’s law, indicating that emf
opposes the change in current.

A Quantitative Interpretation of Motional EMF

A a motional EMF is an electromotive force (EMF) induced by motion relative to a magnetic
field B.
learning objectives
 Formulate two views that are applied to calculate the electromotive force
An electromotive force (EMF) induced by motion relative to a magnetic field B is called a
motional EMF. You might have noticed that motional EMF is very similar to the induced
EMF caused by a changing magnetic field. In this Atom we see that they are indeed the same
phenomenon, shown in different frame of reference.
Motional EMF
In the case where a conductor loop is moving into magnet shown in (a), magnetic force on a
moving charge in the loop is given by evBevB (Lorentz force, e: electron charge).
Conductor Loop Moving Into a Magnet: (a) Motional EMF. The current loop is moving
into a stationary magnet. The direction of the magnetic field is into the screen. (b) Induced
EMF. Current loop is stationary, and the magnet is moving.
Due to the force, electrons will keep building up on one side (bottom end in the figure) until
enough of an electric field opposing the motion of electrons is established across the rod,
which is e. E e. E. Equating the two forces, we get E= v B E=v B.
Therefore, the motional EMF over the length L of the side of the loop is given by εmotion
=vB× Lεmotion =vB×L (Eq. 1), where L is the length of the object moving at speed v relative
to the magnet.
Induced EMF
Since the rate of change of the magnetic flux passing through the loop is BdAdtBdAdt(A:
area of the loop that magnetic field pass through), the induced
EMF εinduced=BLvεinduced=BLv (Eq. 2).
Equivalence of the Motional and Induced EMF
From Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 we can confirm that motional and induced EMF yield the same result.
In fact, the equivalence of the two phenomena is what triggered Albert Einstein to examine
special relativity. In his seminal paper on special relativity published in 1905, Einstein begins
by mentioning the equivalence of the two phenomena:
“…… for example, the reciprocal electrodynamic action of a magnet and a conductor. The
observable phenomenon here depends only on the relative motion of the conductor and the
magnet, whereas the customary view draws a sharp distinction between the two cases in
which either the one or the other of these bodies is in motion. For if the magnet is in motion
and the conductor at rest, there arises in the neighbourhood of the magnet an electric field
with a certain definite energy, producing a current at the places where parts of the
conductor are situated. But if the magnet is stationary and the conductor in motion, no
electric field arises in the neighbourhood of the magnet. In the conductor, however, we find
an electromotive force, to which in itself there is no corresponding energy, but which gives
rise—assuming equality of relative motion in the two cases discussed—to electric currents of
the same path and intensity as those produced by the electric forces in the former case. “
Mechanical Work and Electrical Energy
Mechanical work done by an external force to produce motional EMF is converted to heat
energy; energy is conserved in the process.

Motional EMF: (a) A motional emf=Bℓv is induced between the rails when this rod moves
to the right in the uniform magnetic field. The magnetic field B is into the page,
perpendicular to the moving rod and rails and, hence, to the area enclosed by them. (b) Lenz’s
law gives the directions of the induced field and current, and the polarity of the induced emf.
Since the flux is increasing, the induced field is in the opposite direction, or out of the page.
Right hand rule gives the current direction shown, and the polarity of the rod will drive such a
current.
Conservation of Energy
To keep the rod moving at a constant speed v, we must constantly apply an external force F ext
(equal to magnitude of FL and opposite in its direction) to the rod along its motion. Since the
rod is moving at v, the power P delivered by the external force would be:
P=Fe x tv=(I B L)×v=I ε
In the final step, we used the first equation we talked about. Note that this is exactly the
power dissipated in the loop (=current × voltage=current × voltage). Therefore, we conclude
that the mechanical work done by an external force to keep the rod moving at a constant
speed is converted to heat energy in the loop. More generally, mechanical work done by an
external force to produce motional EMF is converted to heat energy. Energy is conserved in
the process.
Energy in a Magnetic Field
Magnetic field stores energy. The energy density is given as u=B⋅B2μu=B⋅B2μ.
Energy is needed to generate a magnetic field both to work against the electric field that a
changing magnetic field creates and to change the magnetization of any material within the
magnetic field. For non-dispersive materials this same energy is released when the magnetic
field is destroyed. Therefore, this energy can be modeled as being “stored” in the magnetic
field.

Magnetic Field Created By A Solenoid:

Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
Energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit
volume. If there are no magnetic materials around, μ can be replaced by μ0. The above
equation cannot be used for nonlinear materials, though; a more general expression (given
below) must be used.
the incremental amount of work per unit volume δ W needed to cause a small change of
magnetic field δ B is:
δ W=H⋅ δ B δ W=H⋅ δ B
Once the relationship between H and B is known this equation is used to determine the work
needed to reach a given magnetic state. For hysteretic materials such as ferromagnets and
superconductors, the work needed also depends on how the magnetic field is created. For
linear non-dispersive materials, though, the general equation leads directly to the simpler
energy density equation given above.
Energy Stored in the Field of a Solenoid
The energy stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the
current through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic field. This is given by:
Energy stored=12LI2
Proof: Power that should be supplied to an inductor with inductance L to run current I
through it it given as
P=VI=LdIdt×I(22.1.20)(22.1.20)P=VI=LdIdt×I
Therefore
Estored=∫T0P(t)dt=∫I0LI′dI′=12LI2(22.1.21)(22.1.21)Estored=∫0TP(t)dt=∫0ILI′dI′=12LI2
Transformers
Transformers transform voltages from one value to another; its function is governed by the
transformer equation.
Transformers change voltages from one value to another. For example, devices such as cell
phones, laptops, video games, power tools and small appliances have a transformer (built into
their plug-in unit) that changes 120 V into the proper voltage for the device. Transformers are
also used at several points in power distribution systems, as shown in. Power is sent long
distances at high voltages, as less current is required for a given amount of power (this means
less line loss). Because high voltages pose greater hazards, transformers are employed to
produce lower voltage at the user’s location.
Transformer Setup: Transformers change voltages at several points in a power distribution
system. Electric power is usually generated at greater than 10 kV, and transmitted long
distances at voltages over 200 kV—sometimes as great as 700 kV—to limit energy losses.
Local power distribution to neighborhoods or industries goes through a substation and is sent
short distances at voltages ranging from 5 to 13 kV. This is reduced to 120, 240, or 480 V for
safety at the individual user site.
The type of transformer considered here is based on Faraday’s law of induction, and is very
similar in construction to the apparatus Faraday used to demonstrate that magnetic fields can
create currents The two coils are called the primary and secondary coils. In normal use, the
input voltage is placed on the primary, and the secondary produces the transformed output
voltage. Not only does the iron core trap the magnetic field created by the primary coil, its
magnetization increases the field strength. Since the input voltage is AC, a time-varying
magnetic flux is sent to the secondary, inducing its AC output voltage.

Simple Transformer: A typical construction of a simple transformer has two coils wound on
a ferromagnetic core that is laminated to minimize eddy currents. The magnetic field created
by the primary is mostly confined to and increased by the core, which transmits it to the
secondary coil. Any change in current in the primary induces a current in the secondary. the
figure shows a simple transformer with two coils wound on either sides of a laminated
ferromagnetic core. The set of coil on left side of the core is marked as the primary and their
number is given as N p. The voltage across the primary is given by V p. The set of coil on
right side of the core is marked as the secondary and their number is represented as N s. The
voltage across the secondary is given by V s. A symbol of the transformer is also shown
below the diagram. It consists of two inductor coils separated by two equal parallel lines
representing the core.
In addition to that we are going to compare the magnetic field over time graph and the EMF
over time to conclude in reference to the plotted magnetic field over time graph in mat lab we
will contrast and compare the different curves formed when the above are hindered by certain
magnetic factors.
Firstly the magnetic field over time

From this wave produced against the time we can actually conclude that a perfect magnetic
field curve is usually a sine wave with respect to the formula’
B= BO * SIN (omega t)
Thus from this wave we are able to find the amplitude which is simply the maximum
displacement from the equilibrium position. and we can also determine the frequency which
is just simply the number of cycles per unit of time in addition this type of curve can be
obtained if the altanator is of AC or a generator and l we can conclude that this curve follows
faradays law of induction. Lastly the reason this phenominas matter is because it can be
applied in many enginnering concepts so if people can grasp the concepts and help the
engineering future have a more foundation background’s in things like power generation and
transmission.

For this part this is the induced EMF in comparison to the actual magnetic field over time we
can clearly see how this is a perfect cos curve because of it been induced all the coordinates
got reshaped to form the derivative of this curve For example a magnet approaching a coil.
Consider two-time instances T1 and T2. Flux linkage with the coil at the time T 1 is given
by NΦ1. Flux linkage with the coil at the time T 2 is given by NΦ2 Change in the flux linkage
is given by

N(Φ2 – Φ1)

Let us consider this change in flux linkage as

Φ = Φ 2 – Φ1

Hence, the change in flux linkage is given by

NΦ

The rate of change of flux linkage is given by

NΦ/t
Taking the derivative of the above equation, we get

N dΦ/dt

According to Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction, we know that the induced
emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage. Therefore,
E=Nd ϕ dt
Considering Lenz’s law,

E=−Nd ϕ dt

From the above equation, we can conclude the following

 Increase in the number of turns in the coil increases the induced emf
 Increasing the magnetic field strength increases the induced emf
 Increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet, results in
the increased emf
 In the first experiment, he proved that when the strength of the magnetic field is
varied, only then current is induced. An ammeter was connected to a loop of wire; the
ammeter deflected when a magnet was moved towards the wire.
 In the second experiment, he proved that passing a current through an iron rod would
make it electromagnetic. He observed that when a relative motion exists between the
magnet and the coil, an electromotive force will be induced. When the magnet was
held stationary about its axis, no electromotive force was observed, but when the
magnet was rotated about its own axis then the induced electromotive force was
produced. Thus, there was no deflection in the ammeter when the magnet was held
stationary.

 While conducting the third experiment, he recorded that the galvanometer did not
show any deflection and no induced current was produced in the coil when the coil
was kept away in a stationary magnetic field. The ammeter deflected in the opposite
direction when the magnet was kept away from the loop..

Position of Magnet Deflection in Galvanometer

Magnet at Rest No deflection in the galvanometer

The magnet moves towards the coil Deflection in the galvanometer in one
direction
 Magnet is held stationary at the same position (near No deflection galvanometer
the coil)

The magnet moves away from the coil Deflection in galvanometer but in the
opposite direction

The magnet held stationary at the same position No deflection in the galvanometer
(away from the coil)

After conducting all the experiments, Faraday finally concluded that if relative motion
existed between a conductor and a magnetic field, the flux linkage with a coil changed and
this change in flux produced a voltage across a coil.

Faraday law basically states, “when the magnetic flux or the magnetic field changes with
time, the electromotive force is produced”. Additionally, Michael Faraday also formulated
two laws on the basis of the above experiments.