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 SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is a study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human
behavior. Sociology is the scientific study of human society that focuses on society, human social
behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with
everyday life.

The term sociology was coined in the late 18th century to describe the scientific study of society.
Regarded as a part of both the social sciences and humanities, sociology uses various methods of
empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order and
social change. Sociological subject matter ranges from micro-level analyses of individual interaction
and agency to macro-level analyses of social systems and social structure. Applied sociological
research may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, whereas theoretical approaches may
focus on the understanding of social processes and phenomenological method.
Traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion,
secularization, law, sexuality, gender, and deviance. Recent studies have added socio-technical
aspects of the digital divide as a new focus. Digital sociology examines the impact of digital
technologies on social behavior and institutions, encompassing professional, analytical, critical, and
public dimensions. The internet has reshaped social networks and power relations, illustrating the
growing importance of digital sociology. As all spheres of human activity are affected by the
interplay between social structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually expanded its focus
to other subjects and institutions, such as health and the institution of medicine; economy; military;
punishment and systems of control; the Internet; sociology of education; social capital; and the role
of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge.

The range of social scientific methods has also expanded, as social researchers draw upon a variety
of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-20th century,
especially, have led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophical approaches
towards the analysis of society. Conversely, the turn of the 21st century has seen the rise of new
analytically, mathematically, and computationally rigorous techniques, such as agent-based
modelling and social network analysis.

Social research has influence throughout various industries and sectors of life, such as among
politicians, policy makers, and legislators; educators; planners; administrators; developers; business
magnates and managers; social workers; non-governmental organizations; and non-profit
organizations, as well as individuals interested in resolving social issues in general.

History

Sociological reasoning predates the foundation of the discipline itself. Social analysis has origins in
the common stock of universal, global knowledge and philosophy, having been carried out as far
back as the time of old comic poetry which features social and political criticism,and ancient Greek
philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. For instance, the origin of the survey can be traced back
to at least the Domesday Book in 1086,while ancient philosophers such as Confucius wrote about
the importance of social roles.

Medieval Arabic writings encompass a rich tradition that unveils early insights into the field of
sociology. Some sources consider Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century Muslim scholar from Tunisia,[note 1]
to have been the father of sociology, although there is no reference to his work in the writings of
European contributors to modern sociology. Khaldun's Muqaddimah was considered to be amongst
the first works to advance social-scientific reasoning on social cohesion and social conflict.
Etymology

The word sociology derives part of its name from the Latin word socius ('companion' or
'fellowship'[27]). The suffix -logy ('the study of') comes from that of the Greek -λογία, derived from
λόγος (lógos, 'word' or 'knowledge').[citation needed]

The term sociology was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in an
unpublished manuscript. Sociology was later defined independently by French philosopher of
science Auguste Comte (1798–1857) in 1838 as a new way of looking at society. Comte had earlier
used the term social physics, but it had been subsequently appropriated by others, most notably the
Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavored to unify history, psychology, and
economics through the scientific understanding of social life. Writing shortly after the malaise of the
French Revolution, he proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism, an
epistemological approach outlined in the Course in Positive Philosophy (1830–1842), later included
in A General View of Positivism (1848). Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era in
the progression of human understanding, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases. In
observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science, and having classified the
sciences, Comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the
term.

Auguste Comte (1798–1857)

Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus that bore fruit in the
later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is certainly not to claim that French sociologists
such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. But by insisting on the
irreducibility of each of his basic sciences to the particular science of sciences which it presupposed
in the hierarchy and by emphasizing the nature of sociology as the scientific study of social
phenomena Comte put sociology on the map. To be sure, [its] beginnings can be traced back well
beyond Montesquieu, for example, and to Condorcet, not to speak of Saint-Simon, Comte's
immediate predecessor. But Comte's clear recognition of sociology as a particular science, with a
character of its own, justified Durkheim in regarding him as the father or founder of this science,
even though Durkheim did not accept the idea of the three states and criticized Comte's approach
to sociology.

Aims and Purpose

 Sociology aims to understand and explain human behavior within social contexts, exploring
how individuals are shaped by and shape society. It seeks to analyze social structures, institutions,
and interactions to uncover patterns and trends in social life. Ultimately, sociology strives to
promote social change, inform policies, and enhance critical thinking and empathy.

 Sociology is the study of how human beings interact with one another, specifically in the
context of different social structures, institutions, and frameworks. The goal of the
sociologist is to gain insights into the nature of human behavior, including how it influences and
is influenced by society.

Key figures
Key figures in sociology include Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, Harriet
Martineau, Herbert Spencer, George Simmel, W.E.B. Du Bois, and George Herbert Mead. These
individuals laid the foundation for the discipline, developed major theoretical perspectives, and
made significant contributions to the study of social phenomena.
Here's a brief overview of their contributions:

Auguste Comte:
Often credited with coining the term "sociology" and considered a founder of the discipline, he
emphasized positivism and the study of social order.
Karl Marx:
His work focused on class struggle, historical materialism, and the relationship between economic
structures and social order.

Émile Durkheim:
Developed structural functionalism, emphasizing the importance of social structures and their
functions in maintaining social order.

Max Weber:
Known for his work on bureaucracy, social action, and the Protestant ethic and the spirit of
capitalism.

Harriet Martineau:
A pioneering female sociologist, she translated Comte's work and made significant contributions to
the study of social inequality and gender.
Herbert Spencer:
An early proponent of social Darwinism and functionalism, he applied evolutionary theory to
society.

George Simmel:
Known for his micro-level analysis of social interactions and the study of social forms.

W.E.B. Du Bois:
A key figure in the fight for racial equality and the study of the Black experience, he co-founded the
NAACP.

George Herbert Mead:

Developed symbolic interactionism, emphasizing the role of social interaction in shaping the self and
identity.