Carbon and its Compounds

The atomic number of carbon: 6

Carbon achieves stability with 4 electrons in its outermost H
shell. While it could gain four electrons to form a carbon H
anion, removing electrons poses challenges due to the
substantial energy requirement. Gaining or losing electrons

influences the formation of bonds in chemical compounds. H

#To solve this issue, carbon shares its outer electrons

with other carbon or different atoms. This sharing helps both atoms
reach a stable configuration, similar to noble gases. This sharing is

called covalent bonding.

EXAMPLES OF COVALENT BONDING: Exam me aayega

# Formation of Hydrogen Molecule:

"Thehydrogen molecule (H2) forms when two hydrogen atoms come close
together. Each hydrogen atom shares its electron with the other, creating
a covalent bond. This sharing completes their outer electron shells, making

the molecule stable. The chemical equation for this process is H»h
(H----H)

*Single Covalent Bond

H H H2
#Formation of chlorine Molecule (Ca):

Chlorine qas (CI2) forms when two chlorine atoms combine. Each chlorine
atom contributes one electron, creating a covalent bond. This shared
electron pair satisfies the octet rule, making the molecule stable. The
chemical equation is CACCh
(Cl--C) :C1. +

*Single covalent Bond

2, 8, 7 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8 2, 8, 8
Two chlorine atoms Chlorine molecule
#Formation of Oxygen Molecule (Oz)

Two oxygen atoms combine to form an oxygen molecule (0z). The

chemical equation is 2002 showing that two oxygen atoms come
together to create one oxygen molecule.

(0-z-0) :ö: + :0:

*Double covalent Bond

(2, 6) (2, 6) (2, 8) (2, 8)

Oxygen atom Oxygen molecule

#Formation of Nitrogen Molecule (N2)

Two nitrogen atoms combine to form a nitrogen molecule (N2). The

chemical equation is N+NN2 indicating that two nitrogen atoms come
together to create one nitrogen molecule.

:NN: (N N:
*Triple covalent Bond

Two atoms of
Nitrogen
atom nitrogen
#Formation of Methane (CH4)

Methane CHa forms when one carbon atom combines with four hydrogen
atoms. The chemical equation for this is C+4HCHA indicating the
combination of carbon and hydrogen to produce methane.

H
MethaneMolecule

Methane, or marsh gas, is a vital fuel used in CNG and Biogas. It not only

serves as a potent energy source but also participates in reactions

forming essential compounds like (Ammonia NH3).(Water H20), and

(Carbon Dioxide Co) This versatility underscores its significance in

both energy and environmental contexts.

 # Formation of Sulphur (Ss):

Ring structure of Sg Crown shape of Sg

molecules molecule

Properties of covalent Bond: EMA:

•Low Melting and Boiling Points:
Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points

due to weak intermolecular forces.

•Weak Intermolecular Forces:

Covalent compounds exhibit weak forces between
molecules.

•Electron Sharing Between Atoms:

Electrons are shared between atoms in covalent bonds.

•No Charged Particles Formed:

Covalent compounds do not form charged particles;

electrons are shared, not transferred.

Allotropes of carbon: EMA

Allotropy is the characteristic of an element to exist in multiple forms,

where each form possesses distinct physical properties while maintaining

identical chemical properties.

DIAMOND:
Properties:
• Very Hard
• Does not conduct Electricity

• Transparent and colorless.

Uses:

• Industrial cutting tools due to hardness.

Jewelry and gemstones.
 GRAPHITE:
Properties:

Conductivity: Excellent electrical

conductivity.

• Thickness: Single layer of carbon atoms

arranged in a hexagonal lattice.

• Strength: Exceptionally strong.

Uses:

• Lubricants and as a dry lubricant in locks and mechanisms.

• Electrodes batteries.
in

• Pencils (as pencil lead).

Moderators in nuclear reactors.

Fullerenes :
The fullerene C60 was named "Buckminsterfullerene" after
Buckminster Fuller. The initial discovered fullerene is C60,

also known as Buckminsterfullerene, and it comprises 60

carbon atoms.

Versatile Nature of carbon: EMA

The versatile nature of carbon is attributed to its ability to form a wide
variety of compounds,owing to the following characteristics:
1. Tetravalency: Carbon can form four covalent bonds, allowing it to
bond with various other atoms, including itself, to create diverse
molecular structures.

2. Catenation: Carbon exhibits a high degree of catenation, meaning

it can form long chains, branched structures, or rings, contributing to
the diversity of carbon-based molecules.

3. Allotropy: Carbon exists in different allotropes,such as diamond,

graphite, graphene, fulerenes, and carbon nanotubes, each with
distinct properties and applications.
 4. Isomerism: Carbon compounds can have different structural or
spatial arrangements, leading to the existence of isomers-molecules
with the same molecular formula but different structures.

5. Polymerization: Carbon is integral to the formation of polymers,

enabling the creation of a wide range of synthetic materials with
diverse applications.

These characteristics collectively contribute to carbon's versatility,

making it a cornerstone of organic chemistry and a crucial element for the
existence of life as we know it.

Hydrocarbons:
A compound made of hydrogen and carbon only is called hydrocarbon.

Types of Hydrocarbons.

I. SATURATED:
- Compounds of carbon are linked only by single bonds between the
carbon atoms.

Type of Saturated Hydrocarbon:

• Alkanes.
II. UNSATURATED:
Compounds of carbon have double or triple bonds between their carbon
atoms.

Types of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:

• Alkenes.
Alkynes.

Alkanes:

Hydrocarbons with all carbon atoms linked by single covalent bonds are

alkanes or paraffins.
General formula: CnH2n+2.
Alkenes:

- Unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one double bond along with single

bonds are called alkenes or olefins.

- General formula: CnH2n where n> 4.

Alkynes:
- Unsaturated hydrocarbons with one or more triple bonds along with single

bonds are alkynes.

General formula: CnH2n-2

Note: For alkenes, n must be greater than 4, and for alkynes, n must be
greater than or equal to 2 to ensure a minimum number of carbon atoms for
a double or triple bond.

IUPAC Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons:EMA:

IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) nomenclature
is a systematic method used to name organic compounds, including

hydrocarbons. Number of
Formula Name
Catoms

CH methane
ethane

3 propane

CaHo butane

CsH12 pentane

6 hexane
7 C,Hh6 heptane
8 octane

9 CgHzo nonane
10 C,otzz decane

1. Alkanes (Saturated Hydrocarbons):

End the name with "-ane."
Number the carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain.

Identifyand name any substituents (side branches).

Combine the names of the substituents with the chain name.
Example: CHsCH2CHzCHs is butane.
 2. Alkenes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons with Double Bonds):
- End the name with "-ene."

- Number the carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain.

-Identify the location of the double bond and include it in the name.
- Example: CHz=CH-CHs is propene.

3. Alkynes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons with Triple Bonds):

End the name with "-yne."
- Number the carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain.

Identify the location of the triple bond and include it in the name.
- Example: CHEC-CH2-CHs is propyne.

Remember to follow the IUPAC rules for numbering and prioritizing

substituents. The goal is to provide a systematic and unique name for each
hydrocarbon based on its structure.

Steps for Writing IUPAC Names:

1. Identify the Longest Carbon Chain:

- Locate the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms in the molecule.
2. Number the Carbon Chain:

- Number the carbon atoms in the chain from the end that gives
substituents the lowest numbers.
3. Identify and Name Substituents:

Identify and name any substituents (groups attached to the main

carbon chain).
4. Combine Chain and Substituent Names:
- Combine the names of the main carbon chain and substituents,

alphabetizing them.
5. Add Prefixes and Suffixes:
- Add prefixes and suffixes based on the type of compound (alkane,
alkene, alkyne).
 #Examples:
1. CH.CH.CH.CH:CH.:

Longest Chain: 5 carbon atoms (Pentane).

-
IUPAC Name: Pentane.

2. CH.CH.CH:OH:
Longest Chain: 3 carbon atoms (Propane).
-
Substituent: OH (Hydroxy).
-IUPAC Name: Propanol.
3. CH:=CHCH:

Longest Chain: 3 carbon atoms (Propene).

-
IUPAC Name: Propene.
4. CH.CH:CHCOOH:
Longest Chain: 4 carbon atoms (Butane).
Substituent: COOH (Carboxyl).
- IUPAC Name: Butanoic acid.

Drawing Structures of Saturated and Unsaturated Compounds:

1. Connect All Carbon Atoms with Single Bonds:
Use single bonds to link all carbon atoms together in the molecule.
2. Satisfy Remaining Valencies of Carbon with Hydrogen Atoms:
- Attach hydrogen atoms to each carbon atom to fulfill their valency.

- Carbon typically forms 4 bonds due to its 4 valencies.

3. If Available Hydrogen Atoms are Insufficient:
- If the number of available hydrogen atoms is less than required, use
double or triple bonds to satisfy the remaining valency of carbon.

1.The structural formula for propane is:

H H H
H--C--H
H H H
This represents a straight-chain alkane with three carbon atoms, each
bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The carbon atoms are connected by single
bonds.

2. The structural formula for ethene (also known as ethylene) is:

H H

H H
This represents an alkene with two carbon atoms and a double bond
between them. Each carbon atom is bonded to two hydrogen atoms.

3. The structural formula for propyne is:

H-czC-Ç-t
This represents an alkyne with three carbon atoms. The triple bond = is

between the first and second carbon atoms. Each carbon atom is bonded
to one hydrogen atom.

4. The structural formula for cyclohexane is represented as a

H H
hexagon:
H

-H

H H

H
H
Cyclohexane is a cyclic alkane with six carbon atoms forming a ring, and
each carbon is bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The bond angles in the
ring are approximately 109.5 degrees, creating a stable and symmetrical
structure.
5. The structural formula for benzene is represented as a hexagon
with a circle inside: H H
H H
H -H

-H
H
H H
H
This representation indicates that benzene has a stable and symmetrical
ring structure with six carbon atoms. The circle inside the hexagon
signifies the delocalized pi electrons, highlighting the resonance
structure of benzene. Each carbon atom is bonded to one hydrogen atom,
and all carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are equivalent.

Functional Groups:EMA
A functional group an atom or group of atoms within a carbon compound
that imparts reactivity and determínes its chemical properties. Whena
compound contains a functional group, it denoted in the compound's
name through the use of either a prefix or a suffix.

Formula of
Hetero atom Class ofcompounds
functional group
Prettysuffix
-Cl, -Br D Prefix–Chloro
Halo- (Chloro/bromo)
C/Br alkane (substitutes for

hydrogenatom)

Oxygen 1. Alcohol -OH » Suffix - ol.

H
2.Aldehyde » Suffix - al.

3. Ketone > Suffix - one.

> Suffix oic

4. Carboxylicacid jacid.
Homologous series:
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds sharing similar

structure and chemical properties, where successive members in the

series differ by the addition of a common CH. group. For example, CH3,
CaH5, and C3H7
- All members have the same qeneral formula.
- Successive members differ by a CH group.
- Two adjacent members differ by molecular masses of CH.
- All members exhibit similar chemical properties (though not

necessarily identical physical properties).

Structural Isomerism:EMA:
Structural isomerism refers to compounds sharing the same molecular
formula but exhibiting distinct arrangements of atoms or bonds within
their structures.

H
Some Important carbon compounds:
Ethanol (C.H-OH):

-A liquid compound soluble in water.

- Commonly referred to as alcohol, it serves as the active ingredient.

- Due to its excellent solvent properties, ethanol is employed in

various medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and many

tonics.

Acetic Acid (CH.O.):

- Commonly known as acetic acid.

- A 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is termed vinegar and is used

as a preservative in pickles.

- With a melting point of 290 K, it tends to freeze during winter.

- Carboxylic acids, including acetic acid, are categorized as weak acids.
Denatured Alcohol:
Denatured alcohol is a form of alcohol that is rendered unsuitable for

consumption in large quantities due to its adverse effects

on health. Excessive alcohol intake can impede metabolic
processes and suppress the central nervous system, leading
to issues such as lack of coordination and drowsiness. To
DENATURED ALCOHOL
prevent the misuse of alcohol, it intentionally altered by

ER:
incorporating toxic substances like methanol and pyridine,
as well as colored dyes. This modified form of alcohol,

known as denatured alcohol, is specifically designed to

deter ingestion.

Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds: EMA

1. Combustion:
Combustion is a chemical reaction that releases heat and light.

Combustion of Carbon:

C(s) + O2(g)-coz(g)+Heat+Light
Combustion of Hydrocarbon:

CH4(g)+O2g)-coz(g)+H20(9)-Heat+Light
Combustion of Alcohol:

CaHsOH(g)+0z(g)>COz(g)+H20(g)+Heat+Light

In each case, the combustion process involves the reaction of the

substance with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO2)and water (H20)
accompanied by the release of heat and light.

Nature of Flame:
• Saturated hydrocarbons such as methane and ethane burn with a
clear blue flame in the presence of sufficient oxygen.
Limited Oxyqen availability for saturated hydrocarbons results in a
sooty flame.
 • Unsaturated hydrocarbons like etheneand ethyne burn with a yellow
flameand significant black smoke.
• Kerosene, when burned with sufficient oxygen, produces a clear,

blue flame.

• Some hydrocarbons like benzene and naphthalene burn with a sooty

flame.

• Combusting coal and petroleum primarily yields CO2, CO, nitrogen

oxides, and sulfur oxides. The latter contributes to air pollution.

2. Oxidation:
Carbon compounds readily undergo oxidation during combustion.
2C(s)-Oz(g)-2co(9)

(Limited Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide)

C(s)+Oz(g)-cox(g)

(Excess Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide)

Different amounts of oxyge yield different products.

Oxidation of Alcohol:
CH,CH,OH CH,COOH
Ethanol Ethanaice acid

M'EMn)
CH,CH,CH,OH CH,CH,COOH
Prapanot Propantc acid

CH,OH COOH

Berzyi atcaho Berzsi acis

Both alkaline KMnO4 and acidified KzCr207 act as oxidizing agents,

supplying oxygen for the oxidation process.

3. Addition Reaction:
In the presence of catalysts like palladium or nickel, unsaturated
hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions, where hydrogen is

incorporated, leading to the formation of saturated hydrocarbons.

Catalysts are substances that facilitate a reaction to take place ata
different rate, without being consumed in the process.
Hydrogenation Reaction:
This process is employed in the hydrogenation of vegetable oil.

Vegetable oils typically consist of long unsaturated carbon chains,

whereas animal fats possess saturated carbon chains. Animal fats

commonly contain saturated fatty acids, which are detrimental to

health.
H
Pd/C

+ H, H-C-C-H
H
H
Ethene Ethane

4. Substitution Reaction:
A substitution reaction is a chemical process in which one functional

group in a chemical compound is exchanged with another functional

group.

CH3OH+HBrCHsBr+H20
CH4+Cl2-CH3Cl+HCI
In these reactions, one functional group is substituted for another,
resulting in the formation of new compounds.

Reactions of Ethanol:

i. Reaction with Sodium:

2Na+2CHsCH20H2CH3CH20O-Na++He
(sodium ethoxide)

ii. Reaction to Form Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:

CHsCH20H-..CH2=CH2+H20
Hot concentrated H:SO. acts as a dehydrating agent (which removes
water), facilitating the reaction.
 #Secret Question:
1) Write the molecular formula of alcohol which can be derived from butane.
Solution: CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 OH 1-Butanol

2/ Write the number of covalent bonds in the molecular formula of butane,

C4 H10.
H H H
H
Solution: H--(--C-H has 13 covalent bonds
H H H H
3) Write the molecular formula of benzene and state the number of double
bonds in its structure. [CBSE 2014]
Solation: H

|is benzenc or
10
These are
H-0 -H

3 double bonds.
&
4) List two characteristics of covalent compounds.

Solution:(i) They have low melting and boiling points.

(ii) They do not conduct electricity.

Reactionsof Ethanoic Acid:

L.Esterification Reaction:

Acid + Alcoholterication, Ester

Esters are pleasant-smelling substances used in the production of perfumes and as

flavoring agents.

Saponification Reaction:
ii.
Ester +Basepomteton, Alcohol+ Carboxylic Acid
CH,COOC,H, A C,H,OH +CH,COONa
(alcohol) (sodium acetate)

NaOH + CH,COOH CH,COONa + H,0

ii. Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates:

2CH,COOH Na,CO, + 2CH,COONa +H,0 +CO,

CH,COOH +NaHCO, CH,COONa + H,0 +CO,

In these reactions, ethanoic acid participates in esterification, and

saponification, and reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to

yield different products.

 Soaps and Detergents:
Soaps consist of sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic
acids. The ionic end of the soap dissolves in water, while the carbon
chain dissolves in oil.

Hydrophobic - Hydrophilic
tal
head

Soap molecule
Detergents are typically ammonium or sulphonate salts of long-chain
carboxylic acids.

Cleaning Action of Soap:

Most of the dirt is oily, and oil does not dissolve in wate.
Soap molecules form structures called micelles.

• In micelles, one end is oriented towards the oil droplet, while

the other, which is ionic, faces Qutward.

• Soap, in the form of a micelle, resides in the center of the

micelles.

• The micelles remain in the solution as a colloid, preventing them

from coming together and precipitating due to ion-ion repulsion.

Soap micelles are large enough to scatter light: therefore, a

soap solutión appears cloudy.

Na20 Dut parncles

Na (oil gtase)
or
Sonp nolecude

-Oildroplet Nat

Na -Soapmolecule
Na
Na oNat
waler

Micelle formation

Hardness of Water:
• Hard water refers to water with a high mineral content, particularly

calcium and magnesium salts. Soap molecules react with these salts,
leading to the formation of precipitates, also known as scum.
 • Soft water, which lacks calcium and magnesium salts,

does not form scum with soap.

• Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate salts Fe2+
O Iron 0
of long-chain carboxylic acids. The charged ends of
Mg Ca2
these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates Magnesium
Calcium

with hard water, allowing them to remain effective in

such conditions.

#Top Seven Questions:

1) A compound X on heating with an excess of cone. H2 S04 at 443 K

gives an unsaturated compound y. X also reacts with sodium metal to evolve
a colorless gas Z. Identify X, Y, and Z. Write the equations of the chemical
reaction of formation of and also write the role of conc. sulphuric acid in

the reaction. (CBSE 2016)

Solution:
X is

C,H,OH Cone H,S0,,CH,

X
143K
·
CH,CH,OH, Ethanol Y is Ethene, Z is
=CH,+ H,0
H,.

2CH,CH,OH
Ethanol
+ 2Na 2CH,CH,ONa
Sodinm ctlioxide
+H,
Z

Cone. H,SO, acts as dehydrating agent.

2) Distinguish between esterification and saponification reactions with the

help of equations for each. State one use of each
()ester
(ii) saponification process.
Solution: Esterification
Con. H,SO,
C,H,OH + CH,COOH
CH,COO0,H,
Ester
+H,O
Saponification

CH,COOC,H, +NaOH
CH,COONa +C,H.OH
Esters are uscd in synthetic flavours, perfumes, etc.

Saponification process is used for manfacture of

Soaps.
3) Explain giving reasons, why carbon can neither form C4+ cation nor C4

anion but forms covalent compounds which are bad conductors of

electricity and have low melting and boiling points. [CBSE 2017]
Solution:Carbon cannot lose four electrons because high enerqy is needed to

remove four electrons. It cannot gain 4 electrons because 6 protons cannot

hold 10 electrons. It can share 4 electrons to form covalent bonds.

Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity because these do not form

ions. They have low melting and boiling points due to the weak force of
attraction between molecules.

4) Write the chemical equation of the reaction of ethanoic acid with the
following:
a. Sodium

b. Sodium hydroxide,
c. Ethanol.

Write the name of one main product of each reaction.

Solution:
a. CH,COOH + 2Na 2CH,COONA +
Sodi
H,
noate
hano

b. CH,COOH + NaOH CH,COONa + H,0

Sodium
ethanoate

e. CH,COOH + C,H.OHCO,sO
CH,CO0C,H, + H,0
Ethyl
ethanoate

s)What is the difference between the molecules of soaps and detergents,

chemically? Explain the cleansing action of soap. [CBSE 2015]
Solution: Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids. They contain

-the C0oNa group. Detergents are sodium or potassium salts of sulphonic

acids. They contain -s03 Na or -so Na group. Soap has an ionic end which is

hydrophilic, and interacts with water while the carbon chain is hydrophobic
and interacts with oil and qrease. The soap molecules orient themselves in a
cluster in which hydrophobic tails are inside the cluster and ionic ends face
outside. These clusters are called micelles. These attract oil which is

washed away by water.

 6) Write the molecular formula of the following compounds and draw their
electron dot structures:

(a) Ethane

(b) Ethene

(c)Ethyne H H
Solution: a.

H-¢-¢-H: (H)c()cn) CH,

H H

H H
b.
H-=-H accQ)cH,
C. HC=CH.

7). What are micelles? Why does it form when soap is added to water? Will

a micelle be formed in other solvents such as ethanol also? State briefly

how the formation of micelles helps to cleán the clothes having oily spots.

Solution: Micelles are clusters of molecules in which hydrophobic tails are

inside the cluster 3 and the jonic ends are at the surface of clusters. Soap
molecules when dissolved in water they form a cluster due to the
hydrophobic part of molecules orienting themselves away from water. S0
they arrange towards the inside of the cluster while the hydrophilic part

remains outside of the cluster. No, micelles will not be formed in alcohol.

Soap in the form of micelles can be cleaned because the oily dirt will be
collected in the center of the micelle which is rinsed away by water.

# Competency-Based Questions:
1. Two forms of carbon which are crystalline in nature, are diamond and graphite. They differ
allotropic
physicallybut chemically theyy are similar. Diamond is the hardest crystalline form of carbon.In
diamond, each carbon atom is linked to four other carbon atoms by covalent bonds.In graphite, each
carbon atom is linked to three other carbon atoms by covalent bond. Graphite is relatively soft and
greasy.It is also a good conductor of electricity. The C-Cbond length in graphite is 141.5 pm while in

diamond it is 154 pm.

()Which of the following is a good conductor of heat and electricity?
(a) Coal (b)Diamond (c) Charcoal(d)Graphite
(ii) Graphite is a qood conductor of electricity because
(a) it has free electrons (b) it has free atoms (c) it is crystalline (d)
it is soft and greasy.
 (iii) Which of the following types of bindingforces is present in the structureof diamond?
(a)Ionic (b) van der Waals (c) Covalent (d)None of these

(iv) Diamond is not a good conductor of electricity because

(a) it is very hard
(b) its structureis very compact

(c) it is not water-soluble

(d) it has no free electron.

(v)Which of the following is the structure of diamond?

(a) (d)

2. The compounds which have the same molecular formula but differ from each other in physical or
chemical properties are called isomersand the phenomenon is called isomerism.When the
isomerism is due to differencein the arrangement of atoms within the molecule, withoutany
reference to space,the phenomenon is called structural isomerism.In other words, structural
isomersare compounds that have the same molecularformula but different structural formulas,
i.e., they are different in the order in which different atoms are linked. In these compounds,

carbon atoms can be linked together in theform of straight chains, branched chains or even rings.

(i) Which of the following sets of compounds have sam molecular formula?
(a)Butane and iso-butane (b)Cyclohexane and hexene (c) Propanal and propanone(d)All of
these

To form branching, an organic compoünd must have a minimum of

(ii)

(a)four carbon atoms (b)three carbon atoms (c) five carbon atoms (d) any number of
carbon atoms.

(ii) Which of the following is an isomeric pair?

(a) Ethane and propane (b) Ethane and ethene (c) Propane and butane (d) Butane and
2-methylpropane

(iv) Among the following the one having longest chain is

(a) neo-pentane (b) iso-pentane (c) 2-methylpentane (d) 2, 2-dimethylbutane.

(v) The number of isomers of pentane is

(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5