WORK HARD TILL YOU ACHIEVE CH 8

ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRO MAGNETIC
WAVES CH 8
WORK HARD TILL YOU ACHIEVE

TOPIC 1 - CONCEPT OF DISPLACEMENT CURRENT………..BY SK

STEP-1
BY SK
(1) Let us take a capacitor 'C'. Connect it with a source
of charge
Let us take two loops 'S1' & ' S2' as shown. We find
that conduction current 'I' will flow through loop ' S1'
and this conduction current will not flow through loop
'S2'.

STEP-4 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT (ID)

It is denoted by 'ID'. Whenever there is change
in electric flux in a circuit, then displacement
current is produced in the circuit
NOTE I=ID
DERIVATION OF 'ID'
For a parallel plate capacitor
q = CV ....(3)

STEP-3
Maxwell removed this inconsistency by
introducing the idea of displacement current

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TOPIC 2: IS A DISPLACEMENT CURRENT ASSOCIATED WITH A MAGNETIC

FIELD ? OR, CAN A CHANGING ELECTRIC FLUX INDUCE A MAGNETIC FIELD?
A displacement current produces the same physical effects as
the conduction current. Like a conduction current, a
displacement current is also associated with a magnetic field.
Consider the charging of a parallel plate capacitor by a constant
current I in the connecting wires. This increases the charges on the
capacitor plates at a steady rate. Consequently, the electric field
between the plates also increases at a steady rate. Between the
capacitor plates, there exists a displacement current due to time
varying electric field. In such a region, we expect a magnetic field
though there is no source of conduction current nearby.

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Experiments have shown that a magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ is indeed induced (say at a point Q) between the
capacitor plates and has same magnitude as that just outside (say at point P).
⃗ is from the positive plate to the negative, whereas the direction of ⃗𝐁
The direction of 𝐄 ⃗ at Q is
perpendicular to the plane of paper.

NUMERICALS ON DISLACEMENT CURRENT

1. A parallel plate capacitor has
circular plates, each of radius
5.0cm. It is being charged so that
electric field in the gap between
its plates rises steadily at the rate
of 1012 Vm-1s-1. What is the
displacement current?
SOLUTION. Here r = 5cm = 5 × 10-2 m,
𝑑𝐸
= 1012 𝑉𝑚−1 𝑠 −1
𝑑𝑡
Displacement current,
𝑑𝜙𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝐼𝐷 = 𝜀0 = 𝜀0 𝐴 = 𝜀0 . 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 8.85 × 10−12 × 𝜋 × (5 × 10−2 ) × 1012 𝐴 = 0.07A.

2. The voltage between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor of capacitance 1.0 μF is

changing at the rate of 5 Vs-1. What is the displacement current in the capacitor?
𝑑𝑉
SOLUTION: Here C = 1.0 μF = 1.0 × 10-6 F, = 5𝑉𝑠 −1
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙𝐸 d 𝑑 𝑉𝐴
Displacement current, 𝐼𝐷 = 𝜀0 = 𝜀0 𝑑𝑡 (𝐸𝐴) = 𝜀0 𝑑𝑡 ( 𝑑 )
𝑑𝑡
𝜀0 𝐴 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
= =𝐶
𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 10 × 10−6 × 5𝐴 = 5.0𝜇 𝐴.

3. How would you establish a displacement current of 2.0 A in the space between the two
parallel plates of 1μF capacitor?
(Answer: By changing p.d. across the capacitor plates at the rate of 2 x 106 Vs-1)

TOPIC 3: MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS ………..BY SK

Maxwell found that all the basic principles of electromagnetism can be formulated in terms of four
fundamental equations called Maxwell's equations. The four basic equations can be stated as follows :
 GAUSS LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS: This law states that the electric flux through a
1
closed surface S is times the total charge q enclosed by the surface S.
𝜀0

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𝒒
i.e., ∫𝐒 𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
𝜺𝟎
Important consequences of this law are
(i) the charge on an insulated conductor resides only on its outer surface
(ii) the electrostatic force between two charges is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
 GAUSS LAW OF MAGNETISM. According to this law, the magnetic flux through any
closed surface is always zero.

i.e., ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫𝐒 ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝑺 = 0

This law implies that isolated magnetic poles or magnetic charges do not exist, i.e., it explains
the absence of magnetic monopoles.

 FARADAY'S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION. This law tells that a

changing magnetic field induces an electric field. According to this law, the induced emf set
up in a closed circuit C is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the closed
circuit.
𝒅
i.e., ∮𝐂 ⃗𝑬. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒍 = − 𝐁
𝒅𝒕

 MODIFIED AMPERE'S LAW. This law states that the line integral of the magnetic field
around any closed circuit C is equal to μ Q times the total current (the sum of conduction and
displacement currents) threading the closed circuit.

𝒅𝐄
i.e., ∮𝑪 𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝝁𝟎 [𝑰𝒄 + 𝑰𝒅 ] = 𝝁𝟎 [𝟏𝒄 + 𝜺𝟎
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 ]
𝒅𝒕

This law implies the fact that not only a conduction current but a displacement current, associated
with a changing electric field, also produces a magnetic field.

TOPIC 4 - HISTORY OF E. M. WAVES ………..BY SK

STEP-1
Faraday concluded that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field. Maxwell pointed out that
there is great symmetry in nature i.e. A changing electric field should also produce magnetic field.
Again, Maxwell concluded that change in electric field vector and magnetic field vector
perpendicular to each other should produce electro-magnetic disturbance in space.
This electro-magnetic disturbance has the properties of waves and hence these disturbances are
also called electro-magnetic waves or e. m. waves.

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STEP-2
According to Maxwell, if there is variation in electric field vector '⃗E' and magnetic field vector 'B
⃗'
perpendicular to each other, then e.m.waves
⃗ ' ' and '
are produced perpendicular to both ' 'E
⃗'
B
⃗ ' ' is vibrating along Y-direction and ' B
If 'E ⃗ ' is
vibrating along Z-direction, then e.m. waves
are produced along X-direction as shown in
the figure

STEP-4
Maxwell concluded that e.m. waves are transverse in nature
e.g. Radio-waves, microwaves, light-waves, x-rays, y-rays etc. are e. m. waves
STEP-5
In 1885, Hertz confirmed experimentally the existence of e.m.waves. In 1895, an Indian physicist J.C.
Bose was able to produce e.m. waves in the lab. and in 1899, Marconi was able to transmit e.m.
waves up to few km in space.

TOPIC 5 - CHARACTERISTICS OF EM WAVES ………..BY SK

1. The electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerated charges.
2. They do not require any material medium for their propagation.
3. The directions of oscillations of 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗ fields are perpendicular to each other as well as
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. So the electromagnetic waves are
transverse in nature.
4. The oscillations of 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵
⃗ fields are in same phase.
]
5. All electromagnetic waves travel in free space with the same speed, 𝑐 = = 3x108m/s
√𝜇0 𝜀0

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In a material medium, the electromagnetic waves travel with the speed,
𝟏 𝒄 𝒄
𝐯= = =
√𝝁𝜺 √𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 𝒏
Where n is the refractive index of the medium.
6. The amplitude ratio of the electric and magnetic fields is
𝑬𝟎 𝟏
=𝒄=
𝑩𝟎 √ 𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
7. The electromagnetic waves carry energy as they travel through space and this energy is shared
equally by the electric and magnetic fields. The average energy density of an e.m. wave is
1 2
𝐵02
𝑢 = 𝑢𝐸 + 𝑢𝐵 = [𝜀0 𝐸0 + ]
2 𝜇0
8. Electromagnetic waves transport linear momentum as they travel through space
𝐔
𝒑= .
𝐜
9. Electromagnetic waves are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
10. They show the properties of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization.
11. The electric field of an electromagnetic wave is responsible for its optical effects, because E 0
>> B0.

TOPIC 6 - TRANSVERSE NATURE OF EM WAVES………..BY SK

STEP:1 Suppose the electromagnetic waves are travelling in the positive direction of X - axis.
Consider a cube with centre at point 'O'. Suppose this cube contains no charge.

STEP: 2
Let ⃗E1 be the electric field at the left face OPQR and '⃗E2 is the electric field at the right face ABCD.
Let 'A' be the area of each face of the cube.
Then Electric flux entering the left face of the cube = -E1A
Electric flux leaving from the right face of the cube = E2A
TEP-3
Since the cube contains no charge, therefore total electric flux must be zero.

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⇒ Electric flux entering the cube + Electric flux leaving the cube = 0

(i) If E1 = E2, then it would mean electric field linked with E.M. waves is constant. Such constant
electric field cannot give rise to E.M. waves.
(ii) If E1 = E2 =0, then it would mean that there is no electric field in the direction of propagation of
E.M. waves.
STEP-5
RESULT-01
This means that electric field must be perpendicular to direction of propagation of e.m. waves
Similarly, we can also prove that magnetic field must be perpendicular to direction of propagation of
e.m.waves
RESULT-02
Hence electric field and magnetic field associated with e.m. waves are transverse (perpendicular) to
the direction of propagation of e.m. waves. Hence e.m. waves are transverse in nature.

TOPIC 7 - EM SPECTRUM………..BY SK
The classification of EM Waves on the basis of
frequency and wavelength is called as EM
Spectrum.
 GAMMA RAYS
The ɣ-rays are emitted from the nuclei of radio-active
elements. Their wavelength is shortest of all E.M.
waves. The range of wavelength of these rays varies
from 10-14m to 10-11m. The frequency of ɣ-rays is the
highest of all the e. m. waves.

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 X-RAYS
The X-rays were discovered by Prof. Rontgen. X-rays can be produced by bombarding a target of
high atomic number with a beam of fast moving electrons. The range of wavelength of X-rays varies
from 10-11m to 10-8m
 U.V. RAYS
These waves can be produced by passing discharge through hydrogen. These waves are very harmful
to the living tissues. The wavelength of U.V.rays varies from 10-8m to 10-7m.

 VISIBLE LIGHT
It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by human eye. The range of wavelength of visible light is
from 4×10-7m to 8×10-7m.
 I.R.RAYS
I.R. rays were discovered by Hershell. Infra-red rays are heat radiations and therefore all hot bodies
are the sources of Infra-red rays. The range of wavelength of I. R. rays is from 10-7 m to 10-5 m.
 MICRO WAVES
They can be produced by accelerated electrons in a cavity. Their wavelength ranges from 10 -5m to
10-1 m.
 RADIO WAVES
They can be produced by accelerated charge in L-C circuit. The wavelength of radio waves is longest
to all the E.M. waves. Their wavelength ranges from 10-1 to 104 m.

TOPIC 8 - RADIO WAVES………..BY SK

RADIO WAVES: These are the E.M. waves of longest wavelength and minimum frequency. Their
wavelength ranges from 10-1 to 104 m and frequency range is 104Hz to 108Hz.

SOURCE Accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires or oscillating circuits.

DISCOVERED Marconi in 1895

BY

PROPERTIES Reflection, diffraction

USES OF RADIO WAVES :

(i) In radio and television
communication systems.
(ii) In radio astronomy.
SOME IMPORTANT WIRELESS
COMMUNICATION BANDS:

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TOPIC 9 - MICRO WAVES………..BY SK
MICROWAVES: They are the E.M. waves having wavelengths next smaller to radio waves. Their
wavelength ranges from 10-5 to 10-1 m and frequency range is 108Hz to 1013Hz.

SOURCE Oscillating currents in special vacuum tubes like klystrons, magnetrons and
Gunn diodes.

DISCOVERED BY Marconi in 1895

PROPERTIES Reflection, refraction, diffraction and polarization. Due to their shorter

wavelengths, they can travel as a beam in a signal.

USES OF MICROWAVES:
(i) In radar systems for aircraft navigation.
(ii) In long-distance communication systems via geostationary satellites.
(iii) In microwave ovens.

TOPIC 10 - VISIBLE RAYS………..BY SK

VISIBLE LIGHT. It is a very small part of the e.m. spectrum towards which the human retina is
sensitive. The visible light emitted or reflected from bodies around us gives information about the
world.

WAVELENGTH RANGE 8 × 10-7 m to 4 × 10-7 m.

FREQUENCY RANGE 4 × 1014 Hz to 7 × 1014 Hz

SOURCE Radiated by excited atoms in ionized gas and incandescent bodies.

PROPERTIES Reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, polarization,

photoelectric effect, photographic action, sensation of sight.

USES OF VISIBLE LIGHT:

(i) It provides us the information of the world around us.
(ii) It can cause chemical reactions.

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The approximate wavelength ranges for lights of different colours are as follows:

COLOUR WAVELENGTH RANGE COLOUR WAVELENGTH RANGE

VIOLET, INDIGO 4000 - 4500 A YELLOW 5700 - 5900 A

BLUE 4500 - 5000 A ORANGE 5900 - 6200 A

GREEN 5000 - 5700 A RED 6200 - 7500 A

TOPIC 11 - INFRA RED RAYS

INFRARED WAVES: Infrared waves produce heating effect, so they are also known as heat waves
or thermal radiation. The water molecules (and also C02, NH3 molecules) present in different
materials readily absorb infrared waves, increase the thermal motions and hence heat up the materials
and their surroundings.
 All hot bodies are the source of infra red radiations.

WAVELENGTH RANGE 10 -5 m to 10 -7 m

FREQUENCY RANGE 1013 Hz to 1014 Hz

SOURCE Hot bodies and molecules.

DISCOVERED BY William Herschel in 1800.

PROPERTIES Healing effect, reflection, refraction, diffraction and propagation

through fog.

 USES OF INFRARED WAVES :

(i) In the remote control of a TV or VCR, tire keypad of which contains a small infrared
transmitter.
(ii) In green houses to keep the plants warm.
(iii) In haze photography because infrared waves are less scattered than visible light by
atmospheric particles.
(iv) Infrared lamps in the treatment of muscular complaints.
(v) In reading the secret writings on tire ancient walls.
(vi) In knowing tire molecular structure.

TOPIC 12 - ULTRA VIOLET RAYS

ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT: Ultra violet rays are produced by passing high voltage through
hydrogen gas in discharge tubes, arcs of iron and Mercury, the Sun.

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Their wavelength ranges from 10-8 to 10-7 m and frequency range is 1014 Hz to 1016 Hz.
USES OF ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT:
(i) In food preservation.
(ii) In the study of invisible writings, forged documents and finger prints.
(iii) In the study of molecular structure.
NOTE: The ultraviolet light in large quantities has harmful effects on human beings. But fortunately,
most of the ultraviolet light coming from the sun is absorbed by the ozone layer in the atmosphere at
an altitude of about 40 - 50 km.

TOPIC 13 - X- RAYS
 X-rays can be produced by bombarding a target of high atomic number with fast moving
electrons.
 Their wavelength ranges from 10-11 to 10-8 m and frequency range is 1016 Hz to 1019 Hz.
APPLICATIONS
1. SURGERY
X-rays are used for the detection of fracture, foreign matter like bullets in the human body
2. ENGINEERING
X-rays are used in engineering for detecting faults, cracks etc. in metal products
3. DETECTIVE DEPARTMENTS
They are used by detective departments for detection of explosives, opium etc
4. INDUSTRY
X-rays are used to examine the defect in rubber tyres, golf and tennis balls etc
5. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
X-rays have been used in investigating the structure of crystals, arrangements of atoms and molecules
in the complex substances

TOPIC 14 - GAMMA - RAYS

These are E.M. radiations of highest frequency range and lowest wavelength range. These are most
penetrating E.M. waves.

WAVELENGTH RANGE 10-14 m to 10-11 m.

FREQUENCY RANGE 10 19 Hz to 10 22 Hz.

SOURCE Radioactive nuclei and nuclear reactions. Co - 60 is a pure γ-ray source.

PROPERTIES Effect on photographic plate, fluorescence, ionization, diffraction, high

penetrating power.

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USES OF -RAYS:
(i) In radiotherapy for the treatment of malignant tumors.
(ii) In the manufacture of polyethylene from ethylene.
(iii) To initiate some nuclear reactions.
(iv) To preserve food stuffs for a long time because soft -rays can kill microorganisms.
(v) To study the structure of atomic nuclei.

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