UNIT 1

The shape of the earth, Poles, Equator, Great circles, Small circles , Parallels of latitude, D’lat,
Meridians of longitude, prime meridian, D’long, position by latitude and longitude.

Measurements of distance: Nautical, geographical and statute mile, knot, effect of polar compression
on nautical mile.

Familiarity with contents of nautical tables and their use.

Maritime geography, locate Oceans, Continents, Seas, Canals, Straits, Navigable rivers and major
ports of the world.

The shape of the earth, Poles, Equator, Great circles, Small circles, parallels of latitude, difference in
latitude (d’lat) meridians of longitude, prime meridian, difference in longitude (d’long), position by
latitude and longitude.

The shape of the earth

Earth's circumference and diameter differ because its shape is classified as an oblate spheroid
or ellipsoid, instead of a true sphere. This means that instead of being of equal circumference in all
areas, the poles are squashed, resulting in a bulge at the equator, and thus a larger circumference and
diameter there.

The equatorial bulge at Earth's equator is measured at 26.5 miles (42.72 km) and is caused by
the planet's rotation and gravity. Gravity itself causes planets and other celestial bodies to contract and
form a sphere. This is because it pulls all the mass of an object as close to the center of gravity (the
Earth's core in this case) as possible. Because Earth rotates, this sphere is distorted by the centrifugal
force. This is the force that causes objects to move outward away from the center of gravity.
Therefore, as the Earth rotates, centrifugal force is greatest at the equator so it causes a slight outward
bulge.

Local topography also plays a role in the Earth's shape, but on a global scale its role is very
small. The largest differences in local topography across the globe are Mount Everest, the highest
point above sea level at 29,035 ft (8,850 m), and the Mariana Trench, the lowest point below sea level
at 35,840 ft (10,924 m). This difference is only a matter of about 12 miles (19 km), which is very
minor overall. If equatorial bulge is considered, the world's highest point and the place that is farthest
from the Earth's center is the peak of the volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador as it is the highest peak that
is nearest the equator. Its elevation is 20,561 ft (6,267 m).there, giving that region a larger
circumference and diameter.

The diameter of the earth at the equator is 7,926.41 miles (12,756.32 kilometers). But, if you
measure the earth through the poles the diameter is a bit shorter - 7,901 miles (12,715.43 km). Thus
the earth is a tad wider (25 miles / 41 km) than it is tall, giving it a slight bulge at the equator. This
shape is known as an ellipsoid or more properly, geoid (earth-like).

The circumference of the earth at the equator is 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 kilometers). But,
if you measure the earth through the poles the circumference is a bit shorter - 24,859.82 miles (40,008
km). The earth is a tad wider than it is tall, giving it a slight bulge at the equator.

THE POLES
The North Pole:

It is also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is, defined as the
point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It should not be
confused with the North Magnetic Pole.

The North Pole is the northernmost point on the Earth, lying diametrically opposite the South
Pole. It defines geodetic latitude 90° North, as well as the direction of true north. At the North Pole all
directions point south; all lines of longitude converge there, so its longitude can be defined as any
degree value.
While the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle
of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice.
This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole (unlike the South Pole).
However, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, has constructed a number of manned drifting stations on
a generally annual basis since 1937, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. Since
2002, the Russians have also annually established a base, Barneo, close to the Pole. This operates for
a few weeks during early spring. Recent studies have predicted that the North Pole may become
seasonally ice-free due to Arctic ice shrinkage, with timescales varying from next year to fifty years
or more.
The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4,261 m (13,980 ft) by the Russian Mir
submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m (13,410 ft) by USS Nautilus in 1958. The nearest land is usually
said to be Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km (430 mi) away,
though some perhaps non-permanent gravel banks lie slightly closer. The nearest permanently
inhabited place is Alertin the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada, which is located 817 km
(508 mi) from the Pole.
The North Pole is significantly warmer than the South Pole because it lies at sea level in the
middle of an ocean (which acts as a reservoir of heat), rather than at altitude in a continental land
mass.
Winter (January) temperatures at the North Pole can range from about −43 °C (−45 °F) to −26
°C (−15 °F), perhaps averaging around−34 °C (−29 °F). Summer temperatures (June, July and
August) average around the freezing point (0 °C (32 °F)). The highest temperature yet recorded is 5
°C (41 °F), much warmer than the South Pole's record high of only −12.3 °C (9.9 °F).
The sea ice at the North Pole is typically around 2 to 3 m (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in)
thick, although ice thickness, its spatial extent, and the fraction of open water within the ice pack can
vary rapidly and profoundly in response to weather and climate. Studies have shown that the average
ice thickness has decreased in recent years. It is likely that global warming has contributed to this, but
it is not possible to attribute the recent abrupt decrease in thickness entirely to the observed warming
in the Arctic. Reports have also predicted that within a few decades the Arctic Ocean will be entirely
free of ice in the summer. This may have significant commercial implications.
The retreat of the Arctic sea ice will accelerate global warming, as less ice cover reflects less
solar radiation, and may have serious climate implications by contributing to Arctic cyclone
generation.
 Above picture was taken at the North Pole

The South Pole :

For most purposes, the Geographic South Pole is defined as the southern point of the two
points where the Earth's axis of rotation intersects its surface (the other being the Geographic North
Pole). However, the Earth's axis of rotation is actually subject to very small 'wobbles', so this
definition is not adequate for very precise work.
The geographic coordinates of the South Pole are usually given simply as 90°S, since its
longitude is geometrically undefined and irrelevant. When a longitude is desired, it may be given
as 0°. At the South Pole all directions face north. For this reason, directions at the Pole are given
relative to "grid north", which points northwards along the prime meridian.
The Geographic South Pole is located on the continent of Antarctica (although this has not
been the case for all of Earth's history because of continental drift). It sits atop a featureless, barren,
windswept, icy plateau at an altitude of 2,835 metres (9,301 ft) above sea level, and located about
1,300 km (800 mi) from the nearest open sea at Bay of Whales. The ice is estimated to be about 2,700
metres (9,000 ft) thick at the Pole, so the land surface under the ice sheet is actually near sea level.
The polar ice sheet is moving at a rate of roughly 10 metres per year in a direction between
37° and 40° west of grid north, down towards the Weddell Sea. Therefore, the position of the station
and other artificial features relative to the geographic pole gradually shifts over time.
During the southern winter (March–September), the South Pole receives no sunlight at all,
and from May to July, between extended periods of twilight, it is completely dark (apart from
moonlight). In the summer (September–March), the sun is continuously above the horizon and
appears to move in an anti-clockwise circle. However, it is always low in the sky, reaching a
maximum of 23.5° in December. Much of the sunlight that does reach the surface is reflected by the
white snow. This lack of warmth from the sun, combined with the high altitude (about 2,800 metres
(9,186 ft)), means that the South Pole has one of the coldest climates on Earth (though it is not quite
the coldest; that record goes to the region in the vicinity of the Vostok Station, also in Antarctica,
which lies at a higher elevation). Temperatures at the South Pole are much lower than at the North
Pole, primarily because the South Pole is located at altitude in the middle of a continental land mass,
while the North Pole is at sea level in the middle of an ocean (which acts as a reservoir of heat).
 In midsummer, as the sun reaches its maximum elevation of about 23.5 degrees, high
temperatures at the South Pole in January average at −25.9 °C (−15 °F). As the six-month "day" wears
on and the sun gets lower, temperatures drop as well: they reach −45 °C (−49 °F) around sunset (late
March) and sunrise (late September). In winter, the average temperature remains steady at around −58
°C (−72 °F). The highest temperature ever recorded at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station
was −12.3 °C (9.9 °F) on December 25, 2011, and the lowest was −82.8°C(−117.0 °F) on June 23,
1982 (the lowest recorded anywhere on earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at Vostok Station on July 21,
1983).
The South Pole has a desert climate, almost never receiving any precipitation. Air humidity is
near zero. However, high winds can cause the blowing of snowfall, and the accumulation of snow
amounts to about 20 cm (7.9 in) per year. The former dome seen in pictures of the Amundsen-Scott
station is partially buried due to snow storms, and the entrance to the dome had to be regularly
bulldozed to uncover it. More recent buildings are raised on stilts so that the snow does not build up
against the sides of them.

Picture taken at the South Pole

Great circle: A Great circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere (Earth) whose plane passes through
the centre of the sphere.

Small circle: A Small circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere (Earth) whose plane does not pass
through the centre of the sphere.
The Equator: The equator is located at zero degrees latitude. The equator is a Great circle which is
equidistant from and therefore 90° away from the geographic poles. The equator divides the earth into
two hemispheres – the Northern hemisphere and the Southern hemisphere. The equator runs through
Indonesia, Ecuador, northern Brazil, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Kenya, among other
countries. It is 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 kilometers) long. On the equator, the sun is directly
overhead at noon on the two equinoxes - near March and September 21. On the equator, the length of
day and night are equal every day of the year - day is always twelve hours long and night is always
twelve hours long.

Parallels of Latitude: Parallels of Latitude are Small circles which are parallel to the equator (for ex.
Tropic of Cancer, Arctic, etc.)

The Tropic of Cancer and The Tropic of Capricorn

The Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn are Small circles each lying at 23.5 degrees
latitude away from the Equator. The Tropic of Cancer is located at 23.5° North of the equator and
runs through Mexico, the Bahamas, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, India, and southern China. The Tropic of
Capricorn lies at 23.5° South of the equator and runs through Australia, Chile, southern Brazil
(Brazil is the only country that passes through both the equator and a tropic), and northern South
Africa. The tropics are the two lines where the sun is directly overhead at noon on the two solstices -
near June and December 21. The sun is directly overhead at noon on the Tropic of Cancer on June 21
(the beginning of summer in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of winter in the Southern
Hemisphere) and the sun is directly overhead at noon on the Tropic of Capricorn on December 21 (the
beginning of winter in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of summer in the Southern
Hemisphere).

The reason for the location of the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn at 23.5° north
and south respectively is due to the axial tilt of the Earth. The Earth is titled 23.5 degrees from the
plane of the Earth's revolution around the sun each year. The area bounded by the Tropic of Cancer on
the north and Tropic of Capricorn on the south is known as the "tropics." This area does not
experience seasons because the sun is always high in the sky. Only higher latitudes, north of the
Tropic of Cancer and south of the Tropic of Capricorn, experience significant seasonal variation in
climate.
Arctic Circle: It is one of the five major circles of latitude (Equator, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of
Capricorn, Arctic and Antarctic circles) that mark maps of the Earth. Its exact location varies slightly
each year, and currently it's positioned at 66°33′44″ (or 66.5622°) north of the Equator.

Antarctic Circle: This parallel of latitude is currently at 66°33′44″ (or 66.5622°) south of the
equator.

Note: The position of the Arctic and Antarctic circles are not fixed, as their exact location depends on
the Earth’s axial tilt, which fluctuates within a margin of 2° over a 40,000 year period mainly due to
tidal forces resulting from the orbit of the Moon.

Latitude: of a place is the arc of a meridian or the angle at the centre of the earth measured between
the equator and the parallel of latitude passing through that place. Latitude is expressed in degrees and
minutes North or South of the equator having values anywhere between 0° and 90° N or S. The
latitude of the North Pole is 90° N and that of the South Pole 90° S
Meridians of longitude Meridians are Great Circles that pass through the geographic poles.
Meridians cross the equator and all parallels of latitude at right angles.

Prime Meridian While the equator divides the Earth into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the
meridian passing through Greenwich at 0 degree longitude is called the Prime Meridian and the line
of longitude opposite the Prime Meridian at 180 degrees longitude is called the International Date
Line. The Prime Meridian divides the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The Eastern
Hemisphere consists of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia while the Western Hemisphere includes
North and South America. The Prime Meridian and all lines of longitude are completely imaginary
lines and have no significance with regard to the Earth or to its relationship with the sun.

Longitude The longitude of a place is the arc of the equator or the angle at the geographic pole
contained between the Prime Meridian and the meridian passing through that place. Longitude is
expressed in degrees and minutes East or West of Greenwich. Longitude of a place can have any
value between 0° and 180°. Longitude 180° E or 180° refer to the same meridian.

Geographic Latitude of a place Is the angle between the plane of the Equator and the vertical at that
place In navigation, the term latitude implies, the latitude as observed that is the Geographic latitude.

The geographic latitude differs from the Geocentric latitude as the Earth is not A true sphere. The
difference between them is nil at the Equator and at the poles. They differ by a maximum of about
11.6’ at 45 deg N and 45 deg S.

Difference of latitude (D’lat) Difference of latitude or d’lat between two places is the arc of a
meridian or the angle at the centre of the earth contained between the parallels of latitude passing
through those two places.

Difference of longitude (D’long) Difference of longitude or d’long between two places is the arc of
the equator or the angle at the geographic pole contained between the meridians passing through those
two places.
 ϕ = d’lat = measured along the meridian between the two arms forming the angle
λ = d’long = measured along the equator between the two arms forming the angle

In order to calculate the difference in latitude of two places, you first need to know the
latitude of each of the two locations. Look up the location on a map that shows latitude of both the
locations.
As an example you can use Chennai and Visakhapatnam. The latitude of Visakhapatnam is
17° 00’N and Chennai is 13° 05’N. Since both are in N. Hemisphere, take the smaller away from the
larger to get the difference, to get 3° 55’ which is the difference in latitude.

Yet another example you can use Visakhapatnam and Freemantle in different hemispheres.
Visakhapatnam is 17° 00’N and Freemantle is 32° 03’S of the equator, so add the two figures together
giving a latitude difference of 49° 03’

In order to calculate the difference in longitude of two places, you first need to know the
longitude of each of the two locations. Look up the location on a map that shows longitude of both the
locations.
As an example you can use Chennai and Visakhapatnam. The longitude of Visakhapatnam is
83° 00’ E and Chennai is 80° 17’ E. Since both are in Easterly direction, take the smaller away from
the larger to get the difference, to get 2° 43’ or 163’ which is the difference in longitude.

Yet another example you can use Chennai and Boston. Visakhapatnam is 83° 00’E and
Boston is 071° 04’W. Since both are in different hemispheres, add the two figures together to get
difference in longitude of 158° 04’ or 9,480’

Measurement of a distances

1. Nautical mile : The nautical mile (symbol nm) is a unit of length that is about one minute of
arc of latitude measured along any meridian, or about one minute of arc of longitude at
the equator. By international agreement it has been set at 1,852 metres exactly (about 6,076
feet).

2. Statute mile: Statute mile - a unit of length equal to 1,760 yards or 5,280 feet; exactly
1609.344 meters. Therefore, 1.151 statute mile = 1 nautical mile

3. Knot: The knot (pronounced not) is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile (1.852 km)
per hour, approximately 1.151 mph.
 4. Effect of polar compression on nautical mile: The nautical mile has historically been defined
as the length of one minute of arc measured, at the average surface of the sea, along any large
circle on Earth.

With that definition, the mile can only be used as an approximate measure, using the minutes
measured on a meridian or on the equator. Its inaccuracy stems from the fact that the Earth is
not a perfect sphere, as it exhibits, as a result of its rotation movement, flattening at the poles
and elongation of its radius along the equator.

This effect varies the length of one minute of arc of the great circle from 1,843 meters in the
polar zones to 1,862 meters in the equatorial zone. Another factor that contributes to the
inaccuracy is the irregularity of the Earth’s surface, which although on a small scale, has
depressed and raised zones, which varies the length of the arc measured along the surface in a
few tens of meters.

Maritime Geography

Definitions
RIVERS: A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean,
sea, lake or another river. In some cases, a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of
its course without reaching another body of water.
The elements of maritime geography are loosely defined and their meanings have changed throughout
history. The general concept defines blue water as "the open ocean", green water as "coastal waters,
ports and harbors", and brown water as "navigable rivers and their estuaries".

The riverine, banks of the river, arrow points to the Mississippi river; the brown water arrow
indicates the Mississippi Delta; the green water arrow refers to the shallow areas offshore of Florida;
and the blue water arrow leads to the open ocean.
Oceans of the World
An ocean is a large body of water that is saline. They are a major component of the Earth's
hydrosphere and 71% of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans. Oceans are also important to plants
and animals and they have also been important to human history and geography as they have been
used for centuries in exploration and migration.
The Earth is divided into five different oceans although they are all connected due to ocean
currents which circulate water all over the globe. The following is a list of the world's oceans by
arranged by size.
1. Pacific Ocean: The Pacific Ocean is by far the world's largest ocean at 60,060,700 square miles
(155,557,000 sq km). It covers 28% of the Earth and is equal in size to nearly all of the land area on
the Earth. The Pacific Ocean is located between the Southern Ocean, Asia and Australia and the
Western Hemisphere.
2. Atlantic Ocean: The Atlantic Ocean is the world's second-largest ocean with an area of
29,637,900 square miles (76,762,000 sq km). It is located between Africa, Europe, the Southern
Ocean and the Western Hemisphere. It includes the other water bodies such as the Baltic Sea, Black
Sea, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea and the North Sea. The Atlantic Ocean is
important to the world's weather (as are all oceans) because strong Atlantic hurricanes are known to
develop off the coast of Cape Verde, Africa and move toward the Caribbean Sea from August to
November.
3. Indian Ocean: The Indian Ocean is the world's third-largest ocean and it has an area of
26,469,900 square miles (68,566,000 sq km). It is located between Africa, the Southern Ocean, Asia
and Australia. The waters of the Indian Ocean also include water bodies such as the Andaman,
Arabian, Flores, Java and Red Seas as well as the Bay of Bengal, Great Australian Bight, Gulf of
Aden, Gulf of Oman, Mozambique Channel and the Persian Gulf. The Indian Ocean is known for
causing the monsoonal weather patterns that dominate much of south east Asia and for having waters
that have been historical choke points.
4. The Antarctica or Southern Ocean: The Southern Ocean is the world's newest and fourth-largest
ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from the coast of Antarctica to 60 degrees south latitude. It has a
total area of 7,848,300 square miles (20,327,000 sq km). The world's largest ocean current, the
Antarctic Circumpolar Current moves east and is 13,049 feet (21,000 km) in length.
5. Arctic Ocean: The Arctic Ocean is the world's smallest with an area of 5,427,000 square miles
(14,056,000 sq km). It extends between Europe, Asia and North America and most of its waters are
north of the Arctic Circle. Throughout most of the year, much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by a
drifting polar icepack that is an average of ten feet (three meters) thick. However as the Earth's
climate changes, the polar regions are warming and much of the icepack melts during the summer
months.
Continents of the World

A continent is one of several very large land masses on Earth. They are generally identified
by convention rather than any strict criteria, with up to seven regions commonly regarded as
continents—they are (from largest in size to smallest): Asia, Africa, North America, South
America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia.
Conventionally, "continents are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, ideally
separated by expanses of water." Many of the seven most commonly recognized continents identified
by convention are not discrete landmasses separated by water. The criterion "large" leads to arbitrary
classification: Greenland, with a surface area of 2,166,086 square kilometres (836,330 sq mi) is
considered the world's largest island, while Australia, at 7,617,930 square kilometres
(2,941,300 sq mi) is deemed to be a continent.
Likewise, the ideal criterion that each be a continuous landmass is often disregarded by the inclusion
of the continental shelf and oceanic islands, and contradicted by classifying North and South America
as two continents; and/or Eurasia and Africa as two continents, with no natural separation by water.
This anomaly reaches its extreme if the continuous land mass of Europe and Asia is considered to
constitute two continents. The Earth's major landmasses are washed upon by a single,
continuous world ocean, which is divided into a number of principal oceanic components by the
continents and various geographic criteria. Continents are sometimes extended beyond the major
landmasses, in a way that every bit of land on earth is included in a continent.
Extent of continents
The narrowest meaning of continent is that of a continuous area of land or mainland, with the
coastline and any land boundaries forming the edge of the continent. In this sense the term continental
Europe (sometimes "the Continent") is used to refer to mainland Europe, excluding islands such
as Great Britain, Ireland, and Iceland, and the term continent of Australia may refer to the mainland of
Australia, excluding Tasmania and New Guinea. Similarly, the continental United States refers to the
48 contiguous states in central North America and may include Alaska in the northwest of the
continent (the two being separated by Canada), while excluding Hawaii in the middle of the Pacific
Ocean.
From the perspective of geology or physical geography, continent may be extended beyond the
confines of continuous dry land to include the shallow, submerged adjacent area (the continental
shelf) and the islands on the shelf (continental islands), as they are structurally part of the
continent. From this perspective the edge of the continental shelf is the true edge of the continent, as
shorelines vary with changes in sea level. In this sense the islands of Great Britain and Ireland are part
of Europe, while Australia and the island of New Guinea together form a continent.
As a cultural construct, the concept of a continent may go beyond the continental shelf to
include oceanic islands and continental fragments. In this way, Iceland is considered part of Europe
and Madagascar part of Africa. Extrapolating the concept to its extreme, some geographers group
the Australasian continental plate with other islands in the Pacific into one continent called Oceania.
This allows the entire land surface of the Earth to be divided into continents or quasi-continents.

Separation of continents
The ideal criterion that each continent be a discrete landmass is commonly disregarded in favour of
more arbitrary, historical conventions. Of the seven most commonly recognized continents, only
Antarctica and Australia are completely separated from other continents.
Several continents are defined not as absolutely distinct bodies but as "more or less discrete masses of
land". Asia and Africa are joined by the Isthmus of Suez, and North and South America by
the Isthmus of Panama. Both these isthmuses are very narrow in comparison with the bulk of the
landmasses they join, and both are intersected by artificial canals (the Suez and Panama canals,
respectively) which effectively separate these landmasses.
The division of the landmass of Eurasia into the continents of Asia and Europe is an anomaly, as no
sea separates them. The alternative view, that Eurasia is a single continent, results in a six-continent
view of the world. This view is held in geology and geography. The separation of Eurasia into Europe
and Asia is viewed by some as a residue of Euro centrism: "In physical, cultural and historical
diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European
country. A better (if still imperfect) analogy would compare France, not to India as a whole, but to a
single Indian state, such as Uttar Pradesh." However, for historical and cultural reasons, the view of
Europe as a separate continent continues in several categorizations.
North America and South America are treated as separate continents in the seven-continent model.
However, they may also be viewed as a single continent known as America. This viewpoint was
common in the United States until World War II, and remains prevalent in some Asian six-continent
models. This remains the more common vision in Spain, Portugal and Latin American countries,
where they are taught as a single continent. This use is shown in names such as the Organization of
American States. From the 19th century some people used the term "Americas" to avoid ambiguity
with the United States of America.
When continents are defined as discrete landmasses, embracing all the contiguous land of a body,
then Asia, Europe and Africa form a single continent known by various names such as Afro-Eurasia.
This produces a four-continent model consisting of Afro-Eurasia, America, Antarctica and Australia.
When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, greater areas of continental shelf were
exposed as dry land, forming land bridges. At this time Australia-New Guinea was a single,
continuous continent. Likewise the Americas and Afro-Eurasia were joined by the Bering land bridge.
Other islands such as Great Britain were joined to the mainlands of their continents. At that time there
were just three discrete continents: Afro-Eurasia-America, Antarctica, and Australia-New Guinea.

The total land area of all continents is 148,647,000 square kilometres (57,393,000 sq mi), or 29.1% of
earth's surface (510,065,600 km2 or 196,937,400 sq mi).

SEAS: The sea is the connected body of salt water that covers 70 percent of the Earth's surface. The
sea is important in moderating the Earth's climate, in providing food and oxygen, in its enormous
diversity of life, and for navigation. It is normally connected with an ocean. There are land locked
seas that lack a natural outlet such as the Caspian Sea and the Dead Sea.
Names of seas
Adriatic Sea, Aegean Sea, Alboran Sea, Argentine Sea, Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Arafura Sea, Aral
Sea, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea Bering Sea, Bering Sea, Bismarck Sea, Bohai
Sea, Bohol Sea (Mindanao Sea), Chilean Sea, Coral Sea, Caspian Sea, Caribbean Sea, Celtic Sea,
Central Baltic Sea, Dead Sea, East Siberian Sea, East China Sea, Greenland Sea, Irish Sea, Ionian Sea,
Java Sea, Labrador Sea, Lincoln Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Marmara Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea,
Philippine Sea, Red Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of Azov, Sea of Crete, Sea of Okhotsk, Solomon Sea,
South China Sea, Sulu Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Timor Sea, Tasman Sea, White Sea, Yellow Sea

CANALS: Canals are man-made channels for water. These are navigable waterways connected to
existing lakes, rivers, or oceans and used for carrying ships and boats shipping goods and conveying
people.

1. Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal: Popularly known as Grand Canal, the Beijing–Hangzhou

Grand Canal is the longest and the oldest canal in the world.

2. Suez Canal: connects Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea.

 3. Panama Canal: One of the most crucial maritime gateways in the western region, the
Panama Canal provides connectivity between the Pacific and the Atlantic Ocean through the
Panama isthmus- a narrow strip that separates the Caribbean Sea from the Pacific Ocean.

4. Corinth Canal: Connects the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf in the Aegean Sea.

5. The White Sea-Baltic Sea Canal: The White Sea-Baltic Sea Canal, also called White Sea
Canal, is an important waterway that regularizes traffic internally along the Russian
waterways starting from the White Sea in the north and extending to the Baltic Sea down
south.

6. Rhine-Main-Danube Canal: Linking three important rivers in the heart of Western Europe,
the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal or the Europa Canal was originally built as early as the 1938s.

7. Volga-Don Canal: The Volga-Don ship canal interlinks the Russian rivers Volga and Don,
providing an important water passage through the Azoff Sea (a bay of the Black Sea) and the
Caspian Sea to the major oceanic networks.

8. Kiel Canal: Connecting the Baltic Sea with the North Sea, the Kiel Canal passes through the
German province of Schleswig-Holstein. Opened in 1895, the 98 km-long Kiel Canal helps
vessels to bypass the longer route that passes via Denmark (peninsula of Jutland), which is
regarded as quite unstable maritime route, saving an average of 250 nautical miles.

9. Houston Ship Canal: Offering a conduit for vessels between Houston, Texas, and the Gulf of
Mexico, the 50-mile Houston Ship Channel is a vital waterway in the United States.

10. Danube-Black Sea Canal: The Danube-Black Sea conduit is yet another important passage in
the western European region. In addition to connecting the Danube River to the Black Sea,
this shipping canal also in a way interlinks the Black Sea to the North Sea through the
Danube-Main-Rhine channel.

STRAITS

A strait is a narrow, typically navigable waterway that connects two larger, navigable bodies of water.
It most commonly refers to a channel of water that lies between two land masses, but it may also refer
to a navigable channel through a body of water that is otherwise not navigable, for example because it
is too shallow, or because it contains an unnavigable reef or archipelago.
Well-known straits in the world include:
1. Bab el Mandeb, connecting the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
2. Bass Strait, which lies between mainland Australia and Tasmania, Ocean.
3. Bering Strait (85 km), between Alaska and Siberia, which connects the Pacific and Arctic
Oceans.
4. Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, which connect the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, with
the Sea of Marmara in between.
5. Cook Strait, separating the North and South Islands of New Zealand.
6. Strait of Dover (34 km), between England and France, which connects the North Sea with
the English Channel.
7. Strait of Gibraltar (14.3 km), the only natural passage between the Atlantic Ocean and
the Mediterranean Sea.
8. Strait of Hormuz connecting the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, through which Persian
Gulf petroleum is shipped to the world.
9. Strait of Magellan, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans north of Tierra del Fuego and
south of mainland South America.
10. Strait of Malacca, between Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra, connecting the Indian
Ocean with the South China Sea and thus the Pacific Ocean, is one of the highest-volume
shipping lanes & the world's longest strait at about 500 miles.
11. Strait of Messina (3.1 km), running between Calabria and Sicily.
12. Palk strait, between Tamil Nadu state in India and Sri Lanka, the location of Ram Sethu and
rich in natural resources.
13. Skagerrak, Kattegat, and the Danish straits which together connect the North Sea to the Baltic
Sea.
14. Taiwan Strait (180 km - 111.85 miles), between Taiwan and Mainland China.

NAVIGABLE RIVERS

A body of water, such as a river, canal or lake, is navigable if it is deep, wide and slow enough for
a vessel to pass. Preferably there are few obstructions such as rocks or trees to avoid. Bridges must
have sufficient clearance. High water speed may make a channel unnavigable. Waters may be
unnavigable because of ice, particularly in winter. Navigability depends on context: A small river may
be navigable by smaller craft, such as a motor boat or a kayak, but unnavigable by a cruise ship.
Shallow rivers may be made navigable by the installation of locks that increase and regulate water
depth, or by dredging.

Inland Water Transport (IWT) Systems have been used for centuries in countries
including India, China, Egypt, the Netherlands, the United States, Germany, China, and Bangladesh.
In the Netherlands, IWT handles 46% of the nation's inland freight; 32% in Bangladesh, 14% in
the United States, and 9% in China.

Name of some Rivers:

1. Hooghly River (India)
2. St. Lawrence River (Canada)
3. Mississippi River (USA – navigable from New Orleans to Baton Rouge for ocean-going
ships, and to the Missouri and Ohio Rivers for barges.)
 4. Amazon River (Brazil – navigable by ocean-going ships to Iquitos in Peru)
5. Rhine River (Borders on several countries, but is an important for navigation by barges from
Europoort at its mouth to Basel in Switzerland. It is linked to many other canals and
waterways in Europe.)
6. Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo – navigable for small ocean-going ships
for 72 M to Matadi.)
7. Yangtze (Chiang Jiang) River (China – navigable from Shanghai for 200 M to Nanjing for
ships up to about 2000 dwt, and for 1290 M to Chongqing for 3000-dwt ships.)
8. Xi River (China – navigable for large ocean-going ships from Hong Kong for about 50 M to
Guangzhou, and tehrefafter for almost its entire length for river craft.)

SOME IMPORTANT PORTS

AL Algeciras (Spain)
AU Auckland (New Zealand)
BA Buenos Aires (Argentina)
CT Cape Town (South Africa)
D Durban (South Africa)
F Fremantle (Australia)
G Genoa (Italy)
H Hong Kong (China)
K Kolkata (India)
KU Kuwait (Kuwait)
L Lisbon (Portugal)
LA Lagos (Nigeria)
LO London (UK)
M Mumbai (India)
MO Montreal (Canada)
NO New Orleans (USA)
NY New York (USA)
O Oslo (Norway)
OD Odessa (Ukraine)
PE Port Elizabeth (South Africa)
R Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)
RB Richards Bay (South Africa)
RT Rotterdam (Netherlands)
S Singapore (Singapore)
SB Saldanha Bay (South Africa)
SF San Francisco (USA)
SH Shanghai (China)
SP St Petersburg (Russia)
SY Sydney (Australia)
T Trieste (Italy)
V Valparaiso (Chile)
VA Vancouver (Canada)
WB Walvis Bay (Namibia)
Y Yokohama (Japan)

CONTENTS OF THE NORIES NAUTICAL TABLES

Explanation and use of the Tables

I COMPUTATION TABLES
Traverse Table
Meridional Parts
Logarithms of Trig. Functions
Log. and Natural Haversines
Natural Functions of Angles

II TABLES FOR USE IN CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

A B & C Azimuth Tables
Amplitudes and Corrections
Ex-Meridian Tables 1, 2, 3, 4
Dip of Sea Horizon
Monthly Mean of the Sun's Semi-Diameter and Parallax in Altitude
Augmentation of Moon's Semi-Diameter
Reduction of the Moon's Mean Refraction
Additional Refraction Corrections
Total corrections Sun, Star, Moon

III TABLES FOR USE IN COASTAL NAVIGATION

Day's Run — Average Speed
Radar Range
Radar Plotter's Speed and Distance
Measured Mile Speed
Distance by Vertical Angle
Extreme Range
Distance of the Sea Horizon
Dip of the Shore Horizon
Correction required to convert a Radio Great Circle

IV CONVERSION AND PHYSICAL TABLES

Arc into Time
Time into Arc
Atmospheric Pressure Conversion
Temperature Conversion. Degrees Fahrenheit - Degrees Celsius - Degrees Fahrenheit
International Nautical Miles — Kilometres — International Nautical Miles
International Nautical Miles — Statute Miles — Internationai Nautical Miles
Statute Miles — Kilometres — Statute Miles
Fathoms — Metres — Fathoms
Decimal Fractions of a Degree

V PORTS OF THE WORLD

Alphabetical List
Latitudes and Longitudes