UNIT-I (Syllabus)

Contents

Chapter 1: Internal Combustion Engines (ICE)

• ICE Terminology
• Engine Parts and Functions
• Two - Stroke Petrol and Diesel Engines
• Four Stroke Petrol and Diesel Engines
• Comparison of Petrol and Diesel Engines

Chapter 2: Water Turbines and Pumps

• Introduction to Turbines and Pumps
• Pelton Turbine
• Francis Turbine
• Kaplan Turbine
• Centrifugal Pumps
• Reciprocating Pump
 Chapter 1: Internal Combustion Engines (ICE)

ICE Terminology
Internal combustion (IC) vehicles are machines that generate power by burning fuel within a
confined space called a combustion chamber. The basic components of an IC engine include
cylinders, pistons, connecting rod, crankshaft, and valves. The pistons move up and down within
the cylinders, converting the energy from the fuel into mechanical work. This movement is
facilitated through a cycle that typically consists of four strokes: intake, compression, power, and
exhaust. The engine's efficiency and performance are influenced by factors like bore, stroke,
compression ratio, and piston speed. IC engines are widely used in various applications, from
automobiles to industrial machinery, due to their efficiency and power density.

Here are the definitions and explanations of the terms commonly used in the context of internal
combustion engines:

1. Piston: A cylindrical component that moves up and down within the cylinder. It is
connected to the crankshaft via a connecting rod, converting the pressure from the
combustion of the air-fuel mixture into mechanical work.
2. Cylinder: The chamber in which the piston moves up and down. It is a fundamental part
of the engine block where the combustion process occurs.
3. Bore: The diameter of the cylinder in which the piston moves. It, along with the stroke
length, determines the engine's displacement volume. The bore size affects the engine's
power output and efficiency.
4. Top Dead Center (TDC): The position of the piston when it is at the highest point in its
cylinder during the compression or exhaust stroke. This is one of the critical positions for
timing the ignition and valve operations.
5. Bottom Dead Center (BDC): The position of the piston when it is at the lowest point in
its cylinder during the intake or power stroke. It is the opposite of TDC and is also essential
for the engine's timing.
6. Stroke: The distance traveled by the piston from TDC to BDC. It is one of the primary
dimensions of the engine and directly affects the displacement volume.
7. Swept Volume (Stroke Volume or Displacement Volume): The volume displaced by the
piston as it moves from TDC to BDC. It is also known as the swept volume and is a key
factor in determining the engine's capacity. It can be calculated as:
Bore 2
Swept Volume = 𝜋 × ( ) × Stroke
2
 It is typically expressed in cubic centimeters (cc) or liters. The total engine displacement
is calculated by multiplying the swept volume by the number of cylinders in the engine.
8. Clearance Volume: The volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is at TDC. It
includes the volume of the space between the top of the piston and the cylinder head, as
well as the volume of any recesses or cavities in the piston or head.
9. Compression Ratio: The ratio of the total volume of the cylinder when the piston is at
BDC to the volume when the piston is at TDC. It is a critical factor in determining the
efficiency and performance of the engine. The formula is:
Total Cylinder Volume
Compression Ratio =
Clearance Volume
10. Piston Speed: The average speed of the piston as it moves within the cylinder, usually
measured in feet per minute (ft/min) or meters per second (m/s). It is calculated as:

Piston Speed = 2 × Stroke × Engine RPM

- It helps in determining the stress and wear on the piston and other components.

Engine Parts and Functions

An internal combustion engine is a complex machine that converts the chemical energy of fuel
into mechanical energy through combustion within its cylinders. Here’s an explanation of each
part you mentioned:
1. Inlet Valve: The inlet valve controls the entry of the air-fuel mixture into the combustion
chamber. When the valve opens, the mixture is drawn into the cylinder during the intake
stroke. Once the cylinder is filled, the valve closes to allow compression.
2. Exhaust Valve: The exhaust valve allows the burnt gases to exit the combustion chamber
after the power stroke. Once the gases are expelled during the exhaust stroke, the valve
closes, preparing the cylinder for the next cycle.
3. Inlet Manifold: The inlet manifold is a series of passages that distribute the air-fuel
mixture (or just air in direct injection engines) evenly to each cylinder from the carburetor
or throttle body. It ensures that each cylinder receives the correct amount of mixture for
efficient combustion.
4. Exhaust Manifold: The exhaust manifold collects the exhaust gases from each cylinder
and channels them into a single pipe leading to the exhaust system. It’s designed to
efficiently manage the flow of exhaust gases, minimizing back pressure.
5. Cylinder: The cylinder is a crucial component where the combustion of the air-fuel
mixture occurs. It houses the piston, and its internal surface is typically honed to reduce
friction and wear.
 6. Piston: The piston moves up and down within the cylinder, driven by the pressure of the
expanding gases during combustion. The piston’s motion is converted into rotational
motion through the connecting rod and crankshaft, providing the engine's power output.
7. Gudgeon Pin (Wrist Pin): The gudgeon pin connects the piston to the connecting rod. It
acts as a pivot point, allowing the piston to swing as the connecting rod moves up and
down. It must withstand high stress and heat while allowing smooth movement.
8. Cylinder Block: The cylinder block is the main structure of the engine that contains the
cylinders, coolant passages, oil passages, and other components. It provides the foundation
for the engine’s operation, housing the moving parts and maintaining structural integrity.
9. Connecting Rod: The connecting rod links the piston to the crankshaft. It converts the
linear motion of the piston into the rotational motion of the crankshaft. The rod must endure
tremendous forces and stresses during operation.
10 Crank: The term “crank” often refers to the crankshaft’s offset parts that attach to the
connecting rods. These cranks translate the linear motion of the pistons into rotational
motion.
11. Crankshaft: The crankshaft is the main rotating component of the engine. It is connected
to the pistons via the connecting rods and converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons
into rotational motion, which drives the vehicle’s wheels. It also delivers power to other
engine components like the camshaft, oil pump, and alternator.
12. Crankpin: The crankpin is the part of the crankshaft to which the connecting rod is
attached. It is offset from the crankshaft’s axis and provides the leverage needed to convert
the piston’s up-and-down motion into rotational motion. The crankpin is subject to high
loads and must be precisely engineered for smooth operation.

Each of these components plays a vital role in the engine's operation, contributing to the overall
process of energy conversion from fuel to mechanical motion.

Two - Stroke Petrol Engines

A two-stroke petrol (gasoline) engine (schematic) is a type of internal combustion engine that
completes a power cycle with two strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution and
petrol combustion with spark plug. Here’s an explanation of the construction of key parts of a
two-stroke petrol engine:

Key Components:
1. Cylinder head: The main chamber where the combustion occurs, and the piston moves up
and down.
2. Piston: A cylindrical component that moves up and down inside the cylinder, driven by the
combustion of the air-fuel mixture.
 3. Crankshaft: Converts the linear motion of the piston into rotational motion, which drives
the engine's output shaft.
4. Connecting Rod: Connects the piston to the crankshaft.
5. Spark Plug: Ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber.
6. Carburetor: Mixes air with the fuel and regulates the amount of the mixture entering the
engine.
7. Ports:
o Intake Port: Allows the air-fuel mixture to enter the combustion chamber.
o Transfer Port: Channels the air-fuel mixture from the crankcase to the cylinder.
o Exhaust Port: Allows the burnt gases to exit the combustion chamber after
combustion.
8. Crankcase: Houses the crankshaft and other related components, and it also plays a crucial
role in the air-fuel mixture's movement.
Construction Details:
1. Cylinder Block: The engine's main structure contains the cylinder, cooling fins (if air-
cooled), and ports. The cylinder block is usually made of cast iron or aluminum.
2. Piston and Rings: The piston, typically made of aluminum alloy, has piston rings that
ensure a tight seal between the piston and the cylinder wall, preventing gas leakage and
maintaining compression.
3. Crankcase and Crankshaft: The crankshaft is usually made of forged steel and is
supported by bearings within the crankcase. The crankcase is sealed to prevent the leakage
of the air-fuel mixture.
4. Ports:
o Exhaust Port: Located near the top of the cylinder. As the piston moves up, it
uncovers the exhaust port, allowing exhaust gases to escape.
o Transfer Port: Located opposite the exhaust port. When the piston uncovers the
transfer port, the fresh air-fuel mixture from the crankcase enters the cylinder.
o Intake Port: Located in the crankcase. It allows the air-fuel mixture to enter the
crankcase during the downward stroke of the piston.
5. Spark Plug: Positioned at the top of the cylinder head. It ignites the compressed air-fuel
mixture at the end of the compression stroke.
6. Carburetor: Mounted on the intake port, the carburetor mixes the fuel with air and
supplies it to the engine. The mixture is regulated to ensure efficient combustion.
7. Cooling System: In air-cooled engines, cooling fins are provided on the cylinder block and
head to dissipate heat. In water-cooled engines, the cylinder block has water jackets for
coolant circulation.
Working Principle (Brief Overview):
• First Stroke (Compression and Power Stroke):
o Upward Motion of Piston: The piston moves up, compressing the air-fuel mixture
in the cylinder. Simultaneously, a vacuum is created in the crankcase, drawing a
fresh air-fuel mixture into it.
o Ignition: As the piston reaches the top dead center (TDC), the spark plug ignites
the compressed mixture, causing an explosion that forces the piston downward.
• Second Stroke (Exhaust and Intake Stroke):
o Downward Motion of Piston: The piston moves down due to the combustion
force, compressing the air-fuel mixture in the crankcase and uncovering the exhaust
port, allowing the burnt gases to escape.
o Transfer of Mixture: The transfer port opens, and the compressed air-fuel mixture
from the crankcase flows into the cylinder, pushing out the remaining exhaust
gases.
This completes the cycle, and the process repeats with each revolution of the crankshaft.
Advantages:
• Simpler Design: Fewer moving parts, no valves, camshafts, or timing chains.
• High Power-to-Weight Ratio: Produces power on every revolution of the crankshaft,
leading to higher power output for its size.
• Compact Size: Suitable for applications where space and weight are critical, such as
motorcycles, chainsaws, and small outboard motors.
Disadvantages:
• Less Fuel Efficient: Some unburnt fuel may escape through the exhaust port, leading to
higher fuel consumption.
• Higher Emissions: Due to incomplete combustion and fuel escape, two-stroke engines
generally produce more emissions compared to four-stroke engines.
• Shorter Lifespan: More wear and tear due to the engine's high operating speed and lack
of lubrication (usually a mix of oil and fuel is used for lubrication).
This design, while efficient in certain applications, has largely been replaced by four-stroke
engines in many sectors due to environmental concerns and efficiency improvements.
Applications of 2 Stroke Petrol Engines
Two-stroke petrol engines are used in various applications where simplicity, lightweight, and high
power-to-weight ratios are essential. Here are some common applications of two-stroke engines:
1. Motorcycles and Scooters
• Small Motorcycles and Scooters: Two-stroke engines are widely used in smaller
motorcycles and scooters due to their lightweight, compact size, and ability to generate
 significant power for their size. However, their use has declined in many regions due to
stricter emission regulations.
2. Outboard Motors
• Boats and Watercraft: Two-stroke engines are commonly used in outboard motors for
small boats and personal watercraft (jet skis) because of their high-power output,
simplicity, and reliability in marine environments.
3. Lawn and Garden Equipment
• Chainsaws: Two-stroke engines are ideal for chainsaws because they provide a high
power-to-weight ratio, which is crucial for handheld tools that need to be portable and
powerful.
• Lawnmowers: Some older models of lawnmowers use two-stroke engines for their
simplicity and ease of maintenance.
• Leaf Blowers: Two-stroke engines are often used in handheld garden equipment like leaf
blowers and string trimmers for the same reasons as chainsaws.
4. Small Power Tools
• Portable Generators: Compact and portable generators sometimes use two-stroke engines
for their simplicity and ability to run at different angles.
• Portable Drills and Augers: Used in construction and agricultural settings where a
lightweight and powerful engine is required.
5. Snowmobiles
• Two-stroke engines are commonly used in snowmobiles, especially older models, due to
their high-power output and ability to perform well in cold environments.
6. Model Aircraft and Drones
• RC Planes and Helicopters: Two-stroke engines are popular in remote-controlled (RC)
aircraft due to their lightweight and high power-to-weight ratio.
• Drones: Some larger, gas-powered drones use two-stroke engines for extended flight times
and high power.
7. Go-Karts and Small Off-Road Vehicles
• Go-Karts: The high power output and simplicity of two-stroke engines make them suitable
for go-karts, especially in racing scenarios.
• ATVs: Some small all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) use two-stroke engines for their ability to
deliver quick bursts of power.
8. Ultralight Aircraft
• Some ultralight aircraft use two-stroke engines due to their lightweight, simplicity, and
relatively high power output.
9. Small Utility Vehicles
 • Golf Carts: Some older models of golf carts use two-stroke engines for their simplicity
and low maintenance.
• Mini Bikes and Pocket Bikes: Small recreational vehicles like mini bikes and pocket bikes
often use two-stroke engines for their compact size and high power output.
10. Motorized Bicycles
• Two-stroke engines are used in some motorized bicycles, providing a simple and
lightweight solution for adding power to a traditional bicycle.
11. Specialized Industrial Applications
• Pumps and Compressors: In certain industrial settings, small two-stroke engines are used
to power pumps and compressors where portability and simplicity are key.
While two-stroke engines are versatile and powerful, they have been largely replaced by four-
stroke engines in many applications due to environmental concerns and fuel efficiency issues.
However, they remain in use in specific scenarios where their unique advantages are most
beneficial.

Two - Stroke Diesel Engines

Construction of a Two-Stroke Diesel Engine: Schematic
1. Cylinder Block and Cylinder Head: The cylinder block houses the cylinder in which the
piston moves. The cylinder head is bolted on top of the cylinder block and contains the
intake and exhaust ports, fuel injector, and sometimes the valves, though most two-stroke
diesel engines use ports in the cylinder walls instead of valves.
2. Piston: The piston moves up and down within the cylinder. It is connected to the crankshaft
via a connecting rod. In a two-stroke engine, the piston also plays a role in opening and
closing the intake and exhaust ports.
3. Crankshaft: The crankshaft is connected to the piston via the connecting rod. It converts
the linear motion of the piston into rotational motion, which is then used to power the
vehicle or machinery.
4. Fuel Injector: The fuel injector is in the cylinder head and is responsible for injecting
diesel fuel directly into the cylinder at high pressure. This fuel mixes with the compressed
air and ignites due to the high temperature, creating the power stroke.
5. Air Intake and Exhaust Ports: Instead of valves, many two-stroke diesel engines use
ports in the cylinder walls. The piston covers and uncovers these ports as it moves up and
down, allowing fresh air to enter the cylinder and exhaust gases to be expelled.
6. Scavenge Blower: Since two-stroke engines do not have a dedicated exhaust stroke, a
scavenge blower is often used to push fresh air into the cylinder and force out the exhaust
gases. This ensures that the cylinder is filled with fresh air before the next compression
stroke.
Working Principle:
1. Intake/Exhaust Stroke (First Stroke):
o As the piston moves down the cylinder, it uncovers the intake and exhaust ports.
Fresh air is forced into the cylinder by the scavenge blower (or turbocharger) while
the exhaust gases are expelled. At this point, the cylinder is filled with fresh air.
2. Compression Stroke (First Stroke Continued):
o The piston continues to move down, closing the intake and exhaust ports, and then
starts moving up again, compressing the fresh air in the cylinder.
3. Power Stroke (Second Stroke):
o Near the top of the compression stroke, diesel fuel is injected into the cylinder by
the fuel injector. The compressed air is hot enough to ignite the fuel, causing
combustion. This combustion pushes the piston down, generating power.
4. Exhaust and Intake (Second Stroke Continued):
o As the piston nears the bottom of its stroke, it uncovers the exhaust and intake ports
again, allowing the process to repeat.
Key Characteristics:
• High Power-to-Weight Ratio: Two-stroke engines are lighter and more compact than
four-stroke engines, offering a high power output relative to their size.
• Continuous Power Delivery: Since the engine fires once every revolution, it provides a
smoother and more continuous power delivery compared to a four-stroke engine.
Advantages:
• Simpler construction with fewer moving parts.
• Higher power output for the same engine size compared to four-stroke engines.
• Easier maintenance due to fewer components.
Disadvantages:
• Less fuel-efficient compared to four-stroke engines.
• Higher emissions due to incomplete combustion.
• Requires more precise timing and scavenging to ensure efficient operation.
This overview covers the basic construction and operation of a two-stroke diesel engine,
highlighting its design, functionality, and applications.
Applications of 2 Stroke Diesel Engines

Two-stroke diesel engines are known for their high power-to-weight ratio and are commonly used
in various applications where efficiency, compact size, and continuous power output are crucial.
Here are some of the primary applications of two-stroke diesel engines:

1. Marine Engines

• Ships and Large Vessels: Two-stroke diesel engines are extensively used in large ships,
including cargo ships, tankers, and container ships, because of their high efficiency and
ability to generate significant power. The continuous power delivery is ideal for long
voyages.
• Submarines: Diesel-electric submarines use two-stroke diesel engines to generate
electricity for both propulsion and onboard systems when surfaced or at periscope depth.

2. Locomotives

• Diesel-Electric Locomotives: In railway applications, two-stroke diesel engines are

commonly used in diesel-electric locomotives. The engine drives a generator, which then
powers electric motors connected to the wheels. This setup provides the necessary torque
for hauling heavy loads over long distances.

3. Power Generation

• Emergency Power Generators: Two-stroke diesel engines are used in emergency power
generators, especially in industrial settings, hospitals, and remote locations where reliable
power supply is critical. Their ability to start quickly and provide continuous power makes
them suitable for this purpose.

4. Heavy Machinery

• Construction Equipment: Two-stroke diesel engines are found in heavy construction

equipment such as excavators, bulldozers, and cranes. Their high power output and robust
design make them suitable for demanding tasks in construction and mining operations.
• Agricultural Machinery: Some agricultural machines, such as large tractors and
harvesters, use two-stroke diesel engines due to their durability and power.

5. Military Applications

• Armored Vehicles: Some military armored vehicles and tanks use two-stroke diesel
engines for their reliability, high power output, and ability to operate in challenging
environments.
 • Portable Power Units: Military operations often require portable power units that can
operate in remote areas. Two-stroke diesel engines are used in these units due to their
compact size and ease of maintenance.

6. Aviation

• Drones and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Some UAVs, especially larger ones
designed for extended flight durations, use two-stroke diesel engines because of their
efficiency and ability to provide continuous power.
• Light Aircraft: In the past, two-stroke diesel engines were used in some light aircraft,
though this application is less common today due to advancements in four-stroke and
turbine engines.

7. Pumps and Compressors

• Water Pumps: Two-stroke diesel engines are used in high-capacity water pumps for
irrigation, flood control, and other water management applications.
• Air Compressors: They are also used in air compressors, particularly in portable units that
require a compact and powerful engine.

8. Small Boats and Outboard Motors

• Fishing Boats: In some regions, small fishing boats and other small watercraft use two-
stroke diesel engines for propulsion due to their simplicity, reliability, and ease of
maintenance.
• Outboard Motors: Some outboard motors for small boats also use two-stroke diesel
engines, though this is less common compared to gasoline engines.

9. Industrial Applications

• Generators for Remote Locations: Two-stroke diesel engines are used in generators that
power equipment in remote locations, such as oil rigs, mining sites, and remote
construction sites.
• Winches and Hoists: In industrial settings, two-stroke diesel engines are used to power
winches and hoists that require consistent and reliable power.

10. Specialized Vehicles

• Snowmobiles: Although less common now, some snowmobiles have used two-stroke
diesel engines for their ability to operate in cold environments and provide quick, high
power.
 • All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs): In some heavy-duty ATVs used in agriculture or rescue
operations, two-stroke diesel engines may be used for their durability and power.

These applications take advantage of the specific characteristics of two-stroke diesel engines, such
as their high-power output, compact size, and ability to provide continuous power, making them
suitable for demanding and specialized tasks.

Four Stroke Petrol Engine

A four-stroke petrol engine is a type of internal combustion engine that operates through four
distinct strokes: intake, compression, power (combustion), and exhaust. These strokes occur in a
repeated cycle to convert the chemical energy of the fuel into mechanical energy, which powers
vehicles and other machines. Here's an overview of its construction, working, and applications:

1. Construction
The key components of a four-stroke petrol engine include:
• Cylinder: The central part where the fuel combustion occurs. The piston moves
up and down inside the cylinder.

• Piston: A cylindrical component that moves up and down within the cylinder,
driven by the combustion of the air-fuel mixture.

• Crankshaft: Converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational

motion, which is used to drive the vehicle or machinery.

• Connecting Rod: Connects the piston to the crankshaft, converting the piston's
up-and-down motion into rotational motion.

• Cylinder Head: Contains the intake and exhaust valves, spark plug, and
sometimes fuel injectors.

• Valves: Control the flow of the air-fuel mixture into the cylinder (intake valve)
and the exhaust gases out of the cylinder (exhaust valve).

• Camshaft: Controls the opening and closing of the valves, synchronized with
the piston's movement.

• Spark Plug: Provides the spark that ignites the air-fuel mixture in the cylinder,
causing combustion.

• Flywheel: A heavy wheel that helps to smooth out the power output of the
engine by storing rotational energy.

2. Working
The four strokes of the engine are as follows:
1. Intake Stroke:
o Operation: The intake valve opens, and the piston moves downwards in
the cylinder. This movement creates a vacuum, allowing a mixture of air
and petrol (fuel) to be drawn into the cylinder.

o Result: The cylinder is filled with the air-fuel mixture.

2. Compression Stroke:

o Operation: The intake valve closes, and the piston moves upwards,
compressing the air-fuel mixture in the cylinder. This compression increases
the temperature and pressure of the mixture.

o Result: The air-fuel mixture is compressed to a small volume, making it

more volatile.

3. Power Stroke (Combustion Stroke):

o Operation: At the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug ignites the
compressed air-fuel mixture. The resulting explosion pushes the piston
downwards with great force.

o Result: The force generated by the combustion moves the piston

downward, which in turn rotates the crankshaft, producing mechanical
work.

4. Exhaust Stroke:

o Operation: After the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens, and the piston
moves upwards again, pushing the burnt gases out of the cylinder through
the exhaust valve.

o Result: The exhaust gases are expelled, and the cycle is ready to begin
again.

3. Applications

Four-stroke petrol engines are widely used in various applications due to their
efficiency and reliability. Some common applications include:

• Automobiles: The most common use, found in cars, motorcycles, and scooters.

• Power Generation: Used in small portable generators and backup power systems.

• Lawn and Garden Equipment: Used in lawnmowers, trimmers, and other

gardening tools.
 • Marine Engines: Used in small boats and personal watercraft.

• Light Aircraft: Some small aircraft use four-stroke petrol engines for propulsion.

Advantages
• Higher Efficiency: Compared to two-stroke engines, four-stroke engines are more
fuel-efficient.
• Less Pollutant: Due to complete combustion of the fuel.

• Longer Engine Life: Lower wear and tear due to fewer power strokes per cycle.

Disadvantages
• Complexity: More moving parts mean higher chances of wear and tear.
• Cost: Generally, more expensive to manufacture and maintain than two-stroke
engines.

The four-stroke petrol engine remains a cornerstone in many industries due to its balance of
efficiency, power, and reliability.

Four Stroke Diesel Engine

A four-stroke diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine that operates on diesel fuel. It
is widely used in various applications due to its efficiency, durability, and ability to generate
significant torque. Here's an explanation of its construction, working, and applications:

1. Construction of a Four-Stroke Diesel Engine

A typical four-stroke diesel engine consists of the following major components:

• Cylinder Block: The main structure of the engine that houses the cylinders, where the fuel
combustion takes place.

• Cylinder Head: Mounted on top of the cylinder block, it contains intake and exhaust
valves, injectors, and sometimes a glow plug.

• Piston: A cylindrical component that moves up and down within the cylinder, transmitting
the force of combustion to the crankshaft.

• Connecting Rod: Connects the piston to the crankshaft, converting the piston's linear
motion into rotary motion.

• Crankshaft: Converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons into rotational motion,
driving the engine's output shaft.

• Valves (Intake and Exhaust): Control the entry of the air into the cylinder and the exit of
exhaust gases from the cylinder.
 • Camshaft: Operates the intake and exhaust valves via pushrods or directly, synchronized
with the crankshaft.

• Fuel Injector: Directly injects diesel fuel into the combustion chamber under high
pressure.

• Flywheel: A heavy rotating disk that smooths out the engine's power delivery by storing
rotational energy.

• Oil Pump and Lubrication System: Circulates oil throughout the engine to reduce
friction and wear.

2. Working of a Four-Stroke Diesel Engine

The four-stroke diesel engine operates in four distinct strokes or cycles:

1. Intake Stroke:

o The piston moves down from the top dead center (TDC) to the bottom dead center
(BDC).

o The intake valve opens, allowing air to enter the cylinder.

2. Compression Stroke:

o The intake valve closes, and the piston moves up from BDC to TDC.

o The air is compressed to a high pressure and temperature in the cylinder.

3. Power Stroke (Combustion Stroke):

o Near the end of the compression stroke, the fuel injector sprays diesel into the hot
compressed air.

o The diesel fuel ignites spontaneously due to the high temperature, causing a rapid
expansion of gases.

o This explosion forces the piston down from TDC to BDC, generating power.

4. Exhaust Stroke:

o The exhaust valve opens, and the piston moves up from BDC to TDC.

o The burnt exhaust gases are expelled from the cylinder.

These four strokes complete one cycle, and this cycle repeats continuously to keep the engine
running.

3. Applications of Four-Stroke Diesel Engines

Four-stroke diesel engines are known for their durability, fuel efficiency, and high torque, making
them suitable for various applications:

• Automotive: Used in heavy-duty vehicles like trucks, buses, and SUVs, as well as some
passenger cars, especially in regions where diesel is preferred for its fuel efficiency.

• Marine: Widely used in ships, boats, and submarines due to their reliability and efficiency
in long-duration operations.

• Agriculture: Powers tractors, harvesters, and other agricultural machinery.

• Construction: Used in heavy construction equipment like excavators, bulldozers, cranes,

and loaders.

• Power Generation: Employed in diesel generators for electricity generation in remote

areas, backup power systems, and industrial settings.

• Railways: Used in diesel locomotives for train propulsion.

• Industrial Machinery: Powers various industrial machines, compressors, and pumps.

Four-stroke diesel engines are favored in applications where fuel economy, power, and reliability
are critical, making them a popular choice across various industries.

Comparison of Petrol and Diesel Engines

Petrol (gasoline) and diesel engines are the two most common types of internal combustion
engines, each with distinct characteristics. Here’s a comparison based on various factors:

1. Fuel Type
• Petrol Engine: Uses petrol (gasoline) as fuel, which is more volatile and has a higher
octane rating.
• Diesel Engine: Uses diesel fuel, which is less volatile but denser with more energy content
per liter.

2. Working Principle
• Petrol Engine: Operates on the Otto cycle (constant volume cycle) and typically uses a
spark plug to ignite an air-fuel mixture that is pre-mixed in the carburetor or through fuel
injection.
• Diesel Engine: Operates on the Diesel cycle (constant pressure cycle) and relies on
compression ignition, where diesel fuel is injected into highly compressed air, causing it to
ignite due to the high temperature.

3. Compression Ratio
 • Petrol Engine: Has a lower compression ratio, typically between 8:1 and 12:1. Lower
compression is required to prevent knocking, which can occur due to the premature ignition
of the fuel.
• Diesel Engine: Has a higher compression ratio, usually between 14:1 and 22:1. The high
compression is necessary for the air to reach a temperature sufficient to ignite the diesel
fuel.

4. Efficiency
• Petrol Engine: Generally less fuel-efficient than diesel engines. The efficiency of a petrol
engine is lower due to the lower compression ratio and the need for a richer air-fuel mixture.
• Diesel Engine: More fuel-efficient, especially at part-load conditions, due to higher
compression ratios and the nature of the Diesel cycle, which extracts more energy from the
fuel.

5. Torque and Power Output

• Petrol Engine: Delivers power at higher RPMs and is often used in vehicles where quick
acceleration and higher speeds are desired. The power output is usually more linear.
• Diesel Engine: Provides higher torque at lower RPMs, which is advantageous for heavy-
duty applications like trucks and large vehicles where pulling power is essential.

6. Cost
• Petrol Engine: Generally, less expensive to manufacture, maintain, and repair. The
components are lighter, and the technology is simpler compared to diesel engines.
• Diesel Engine: More expensive to manufacture and maintain due to the need for stronger
components to withstand higher pressures and temperatures. However, the long-term cost
can be lower due to better fuel efficiency.

7. Emissions
• Petrol Engine: Typically emits more carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC).
However, modern petrol engines with catalytic converters and other emission control
technologies have become cleaner.
• Diesel Engine: Emits more nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM), which
require complex after-treatment systems like Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and
Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF) to meet emission standards.

8. Noise and Vibration

• Petrol Engine: Generally quieter and smoother, with less vibration due to the lower
compression ratio and smoother combustion process.
 • Diesel Engine: Typically noisier and produces more vibration due to the high compression
and the nature of diesel combustion. Modern diesel engines, however, have improved
significantly in this regard.

9. Applications
• Petrol Engine: Commonly used in passenger cars, motorcycles, light trucks, and small
machines where quick acceleration, lower weight, and lower noise are prioritized.
• Diesel Engine: Preferred in heavy-duty vehicles, trucks, buses, marine applications,
industrial machinery, and generators, where fuel efficiency, durability, and torque are
critical.
10. Durability and Longevity
• Petrol Engine: Generally, has a shorter lifespan compared to diesel engines, partly due to
the lower stress they are designed to endure.
• Diesel Engine: Known for its durability and longer lifespan, especially in heavy-duty
applications where engines often run for extended periods.

Summary
• Petrol engines are better suited for lighter vehicles, offering smoother operation, quicker
acceleration, and lower upfront costs. They are ideal for applications where lower weight,
speed, and refinement are prioritized.
• Diesel engines excel in heavy-duty applications, providing higher torque, better fuel
efficiency, and longer service life. They are preferred in commercial vehicles, industrial
machinery, and situations where operating costs and durability are critical.

Each engine type has its strengths and is selected based on the specific requirements of the
application.
 Chapter 2: Water Turbines and Pumps

Introduction to Turbines and Pumps

Water turbines and pumps are crucial components in the field of fluid mechanics and hydraulic
engineering, each serving distinct but related purposes. The detail about each component is listed
below.

Water Turbines (Schematic):

Purpose: A water turbine is a device that converts the energy of moving water (kinetic or potential
energy) into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy can then be used for various purposes,
such as generating electricity, powering machinery, or driving water pumps.

Working principles: The principles of working are based on fluid dynamics and the conversion of
kinetic and potential energy of water into rotational energy of the turbine blades.

• Newton’s Second Law explains how the change in momentum of the water causes a force
to act on the turbine blades, leading to their motion.
• Newton’s Third Law describes how the water’s force on the blades and the blades’ force
on the water are equal but opposite, enabling the conversion of energy.

Turbines Working Steps:

• Water flows from a higher elevation (potential energy) or through pipes with high speed
(kinetic energy).
• The water strikes the blades of the turbine, imparting its momentum to the blades and
causing them to rotate.
• This rotational motion is used to turn a generator, which then produces electricity.

Types of Turbines: There are several types of water turbines, including impulse turbines (such
as the Pelton wheel) and reaction turbines (such as the Francis and Kaplan turbines). Impulse
turbines convert the energy of high-speed jets of water into rotational energy, while reaction
turbines utilize the pressure of water in a more continuous flow.

• Applications: Water turbines are commonly used in hydroelectric power plants where they
play a vital role in generating electricity. They can also be found in irrigation systems and
in various industrial processes.
Pumps

Purpose: Pumps are designed to move water or other fluids from one place to another. Unlike
turbines, which extract energy, pumps add energy to the fluid to facilitate its movement.

How They Work:

• Fluid Dynamics: Pumps operate by creating a pressure difference that moves the fluid.
The fluid enters the pump, is moved by a rotating impeller or a similar mechanism, and is
then discharged at a higher pressure.
• Types of Pumps: There are many types of pumps, including centrifugal pumps (which use
a rotating impeller to add energy to the fluid) and reciprocating pumps (which move fluid
by trapping it and forcing it into the discharge pipe).
• Applications: Pumps are widely used in water supply systems, wastewater treatment
plants, and various industrial processes. They are essential in applications ranging from
household water supply to large-scale irrigation and chemical processing.

Relation Between Turbines and Pumps

Although turbines and pumps have opposite functions (energy extraction vs. energy
addition), they are often related:
• Turbine-Pump Systems: Some systems can switch between turbine and pump modes,
known as pump-turbines. These systems are used in hydroelectric plants to store energy by
pumping water uphill during low-demand periods and generating electricity by releasing
water during high-demand periods.

Key Considerations

• Efficiency: Both turbines and pumps are evaluated based on their efficiency, which
measures how well they convert energy. In turbines, efficiency is about converting water’s
energy into mechanical energy, while in pumps, it’s about efficiently moving the fluid with
minimal energy loss.
• Design Factors: The design of turbines and pumps must consider factors like flow rate,
pressure, and the properties of the fluid being handled. For example, the type of turbine or
pump chosen will depend on whether the application requires high flow rates, high
pressures, or both.
Understanding these components is crucial for optimizing systems that rely on
water or other fluids, ensuring both effective energy conversion and efficient fluid
handling.
 Pelton Turbine

The Pelton turbine is an impulse turbine used primarily for high-head (300 meters to 2000+ meters)
hydropower generation. It converts the kinetic energy of a high-velocity water jet into mechanical
energy, which then drives a generator to produce electricity. The detailed explanation of its
construction and working principles are as follows:

Construction Details
1. Runner (Wheel) and Buckets:
• The runner is a large circular disk mounted on a shaft.
• Around the periphery of the runner, there are specially designed buckets. These
buckets are double hemispherical (or spoon-shaped) and split into two
symmetrical parts by a sharp ridge in the middle.
• The buckets are designed in such a way that when water strikes the buckets, it
deflects, maximizing the transfer of energy and minimizing splash.
2. Nozzles and Jets:
• Water from the high-head reservoir is directed through one or more nozzles.
• The nozzle converts the potential energy of the water into a high-speed jet that
strikes the buckets.
• A spear or needle inside the nozzle controls the flow rate by adjusting the cross-
sectional area of the jet.
3. Casing:
• A casing encloses the turbine to protect the equipment and to prevent splashing of
water.
• It also guides the spent water safely to the tailrace after it has passed through the
turbine.
4. Shaft:
• The runner is mounted on a shaft, which is connected to the generator or any
mechanical device that needs to be driven.
• The shaft rotates when the water jet impacts the buckets, transmitting the
mechanical power.
5. Braking Jet:
• Some Pelton turbines are equipped with a braking jet system to bring the
runner to a halt quickly. It is used to counteract any unwanted rotation of the
runner when the water supply is cut off.
Working Principle:
Pelton turbine operates on the principle of converting the kinetic energy of water jets into
mechanical energy, which is then used to generate electrical energy. The working principle of the
Pelton turbine is directly related to Newton’s Second Law of Motion.
1. Nozzle and Jet Formation: Water under high pressure is passed through a nozzle, which
converts the pressure energy into high-speed kinetic energy. The result is a high-velocity
water jet directed towards the buckets of the turbine.
2. Impulse Force on Buckets (Newton’s 2nd Law): As the water jet strikes the curved surface
of the bucket, it changes path, resulting in directional change of velocity in the process.
According to Newton’s second law, the force exerted on the bucket is proportional to the
change in momentum of the water jet. When the water jet strikes and deflects in the
opposite direction, there’s a large change in momentum, generating an impulse force on
the bucket.
3. Energy Transfer: This force causes the wheel (runner) to rotate, transferring the kinetic
energy of the water to the mechanical energy of the rotating wheel.
4. Optimal Deflection: The shape of the buckets is designed so that the water jet is deflected
by nearly 180°, maximizing the momentum change and, consequently, the force on the
bucket. The water exits the bucket at a lower velocity, having transferred most of its kinetic
energy to the turbine.
5. Rotation and Power Generation: The rotating wheel is connected to a generator, and the
mechanical energy of rotation is converted into electrical energy.

Key Features:
• Impulse Turbine: Pelton turbines work best under high-head, low-flow conditions, which
makes them ideal for mountain regions with steep water sources.
• High Efficiency: They are highly efficient, especially at full load, and can handle varying
water flow rates by adjusting the nozzle.
• No Cavitation: Since Pelton turbines are impulse turbines, they do not suffer from
cavitation, a common problem in reaction turbines.

Applications:
• Pelton turbines are widely used in hydropower stations with high heads (above 300 meters),
such as in mountainous regions.
• They are often used in isolated power stations or areas with difficult access to large water
volumes but high water pressures.
 Francis Turbine

The Francis turbine is a type of reaction turbine that is widely used in hydroelectric power plants
to convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. It operates under medium to high (40 meters
to 600 meters) water heads and is one of the most used turbines due to its efficiency and versatility.

Construction Details:
1. Spiral Casing
• Purpose: The spiral casing (or scroll casing) guides the water from the penstock and
distributes it evenly around the turbine.
• Design: It is a spiral-shaped chamber that decreases in cross-sectional area as it wraps
around the turbine. This ensures that water pressure remains consistent as it flows
toward the runner.
• Material: Typically made of steel or other corrosion-resistant materials to handle high
pressure and water flow.
2. Stay Ring: The stay ring provides structural support to the turbine by holding the guide
vanes and runner in place. It helps to maintain the alignment and stability of these
components under the high-pressure water flow.
3. Stay Vanes
• Purpose: Stay vanes are fixed blades mounted inside the spiral casing to support and
align the flow of water towards the guide vanes.
• Design: These vanes are stationary and help stabilize the water flow to prevent
swirling, which could reduce the turbine’s efficiency.
4. Guide Vanes (Wicket Gates)
• Purpose: Guide vanes control the amount and direction of water entering the turbine
runner. They also regulate the flow based on demand, allowing for control over the
turbine's power output.
• Design: These adjustable blades are placed around the runner. They can open and close
to control water flow, optimizing performance for varying loads and water levels.
• Mechanism: They are connected to a governor mechanism that adjusts their angle to
regulate the water flow according to power requirements.
5. Runner (Impeller)
• Purpose: The runner is the rotating part of the turbine that converts the water's energy
into mechanical energy.
• Design: The runner consists of a series of curved blades (also known as buckets or
vanes) attached to a central hub. These blades are specifically designed to handle high
pressures and velocities.
 • Flow Type: Water enters the runner radially (from the sides) and exits axially (in the
direction of the turbine shaft). This mixed flow improves efficiency.
• Material: Typically made from high-strength stainless steel or other durable materials
to withstand the stresses of water flow and high rotation speeds.
6. Draft Tube
• Purpose: The draft tube is used to recover the kinetic energy of the water exiting the
runner and convert it into pressure energy, improving the turbine’s overall efficiency.
• Design: It is a gradually expanding tube located below the runner that slows down the
water after it leaves the runner and helps to create a partial vacuum, aiding in the suction
of water through the turbine.

Key Characteristics:
• Efficiency: The Francis turbine has a high efficiency, often reaching up to 95% or
more.
• Flow Type: It uses a combination of radial and axial flow, also known as mixed flow.
• Head Range: It operates under a medium to high head, typically between 10 to 600
meters.
• Application: Widely used in large hydroelectric power plants, where stable and high
power generation is required.

Working Principle:
The working of the Francis turbine can be explained using Newton's Second, Third Laws of motion
and Velocity Triangles.

Newton's Second Law: (Force = Mass × Acceleration)

This law states that the force applied on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum
(mass × velocity).

1. Water Flow and Impulse: As water enters the Francis turbine, it has a high velocity. The
blades of the turbine direct the flow and change its speed and direction, which causes a
change in momentum.
2. Force Generation: According to Newton's second law, when the momentum of the water
changes, a force is exerted on the turbine blades. This force results in the rotation of the
turbine's runner.
3. Acceleration of Water: As water flows through the turbine, the curvature of the blades
causes a change in both the magnitude and direction of the water's velocity, which
corresponds to an acceleration. This acceleration leads to a force acting on the blades and
powers the turbine’s motion.
Newton's Third Law: (Action = Reaction)

This law states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

1. Action by Water on Blades: As high-velocity water strikes the blades of the Francis turbine,
it exerts an action force on the blades. This force causes the blades to move and rotate the
turbine’s shaft.
2. Reaction of Blades on Water: Simultaneously, the blades exert an equal and opposite
reaction force on the water, causing the water to decelerate and change direction. This
interaction transfers energy from the water to the turbine, causing the turbine to spin.

Velocity Triangles

The combined velocity triangle help in understanding the flow of water through the turbine blades
and how energy conversion occurs at different points.

Working of Francis Turbine Based on Velocity Triangles:

1. Water Entry at Guide Vanes: Water flows through the guide vanes, which control the
flow rate and direction. The absolute velocity (V₁) of water entering the runner is defined,
and the velocity triangle at the inlet is drawn based on the velocity of the runner (U₁) and
the direction of water.
2. Flow in the Runner: As water moves through the blades, the relative velocity (Vr₁)
changes direction, and the water exerts a tangential force on the blades, causing the runner
to rotate. The change in velocity components (V₁ to V₂, Vr₁ to Vr₂) explains how the kinetic
and pressure energy of water is converted into mechanical energy.
3. Energy Conversion: The reaction forces on the blades (due to pressure differences)
combined with the velocity changes (work done by tangential force) cause rotation,
producing mechanical energy. The difference between the inlet and outlet velocity triangles
explains the torque produced on the runner.
4. Water Exit via Draft Tube: Water leaves the runner with reduced pressure and velocity,
flowing into the draft tube. The velocity triangle at the exit helps determine how much
energy has been transferred to the runner and how much kinetic energy is still left in the
water.
 Kaplan Turbine

A Kaplan turbine is a type of reaction turbine used for low-head (10 meters to 70 meters), high-
flow water applications, such as hydroelectric power generation. It is an axial flow turbine,
meaning water flows parallel to the turbine shaft, and is widely known for its adjustable blades,
making it highly efficient under varying water flow conditions. The major parts of Kaplan turbine
are:

1. Runner (Turbine Wheel)

• The runner is the heart of the Kaplan turbine and consists of a central hub with several
blades attached (typically 3 to 8 blades).
• Adjustable Blades: The distinguishing feature of Kaplan turbines is their adjustable
blades. These blades can change their angle during operation (pitch adjustment), which
allows the turbine to maintain high efficiency even when water flow rates or loads change.
• Shape: The blades are often curved and have a shape optimized for low head applications,
helping to convert the kinetic energy of the water into rotational mechanical energy
efficiently.

2. Hub (Boss)

• The hub is the center of the runner and houses the mechanism for adjusting the blade
angles. It is connected to the shaft that transfers rotational energy to the generator.
• The hub shape is streamlined to minimize resistance as water flows through the turbine.

3. Wicket Gates (Guide Vanes)

• The wicket gates surround the runner and control the flow of water into the turbine. These
gates are adjustable and work together with the runner blades to regulate water flow based
on power demand and water conditions.
• They direct the water to hit the blades at the optimal angle, enhancing turbine efficiency.

4. Spiral Casing (Volute)

• The water enters the turbine through a spiral-shaped spiral casing, which distributes the
water uniformly around the runner.
• The shape of the casing ensures that the water flows smoothly and efficiently into the
wicket gates, preventing turbulence.

5. Draft Tube
 • After passing through the runner, the water exits through the draft tube, which gradually
widens. This design helps to recover pressure and reduce the velocity of the exiting water,
thus improving overall efficiency.
• The draft tube also helps maintain a low pressure at the exit of the runner, which increases
the energy extraction from the water.

6. Shaft

• The main shaft connects the runner to the generator. The rotational mechanical energy from
the runner is transferred through the shaft to the generator, which then produces electricity.

Working Principle

The Kaplan turbine is a reaction turbine, meaning it works on the principle of both pressure and
kinetic energy conversion, and it is well-suited for low-head, high-flow water applications. Its most
notable feature is the adjustable pitch of its blades, allowing the turbine to maintain high efficiency
across a wide range of water flow conditions. The detailed steps of its working are:

1. Water Entry through Scroll Casing

• Water from the dam or reservoir enters the turbine through a scroll casing (also known as
a volute), which is designed in a spiral shape.
• The scroll casing distributes water uniformly around the circumference of the turbine,
ensuring smooth and even flow into the runner.

2. Guide Vanes (Wicket Gates)

• Before reaching the runner, water passes through guide vanes or wicket gates. These
adjustable vanes control the volume and direction of water entering the runner.
• By adjusting the angle of the guide vanes, the water can be directed toward the runner at
an optimal angle, maximizing energy conversion efficiency.

3. Water Flow through the Runner (Reaction Process)

• After being directed by the guide vanes, the water flows through the runner. The runner
blades in a Kaplan turbine are adjustable and can change their pitch angle based on the
water flow conditions.
• Reaction Principle: Unlike impulse turbines (e.g., Pelton), where the entire energy comes
from water's kinetic energy, a Kaplan turbine operates on both pressure energy and kinetic
energy.
 • Water enters the runner at a certain pressure and velocity.
• As the water flows over the runner blades, the pressure decreases and is converted
into kinetic energy, causing the runner to rotate.

• The combination of pressure drop and water velocity change generates the rotational
mechanical energy in the runner.

4. Adjustable Runner Blades (Pitch Control)

• The adjustable runner blades are the unique feature of the Kaplan turbine. These blades
change their angle or pitch depending on the flow and load conditions, allowing the turbine
to operate at maximum efficiency.
• The blade pitch adjustment is controlled by a hydraulic control system, which optimizes
the blade angle according to the water flow, maintaining efficient energy conversion across
varying water levels and loads.

5. Conversion of Energy

• The rotational energy generated by the runner is transferred to the turbine’s shaft.
• This shaft is connected to a generator, where the mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy.

6. Water Exit through Draft Tube

• After passing through the runner, the water exits the turbine through a draft tube. The draft
tube is shaped like a cone, widening as it goes down.
• The purpose of the draft tube is to recover as much pressure as possible and reduce the
kinetic energy of the exiting water, improving the overall efficiency of the turbine.
• The draft tube also maintains a low pressure at the runner exit, which allows for more
energy extraction.

Reaction Process in Kaplan Turbine:

• The Kaplan turbine is a reaction turbine, meaning that the water does not just strike the
blades (as in an impulse turbine) but flows through them, causing a pressure drop and
velocity change as it passes. This reaction to the water's flow results in the rotation of the
runner.

This process makes the Kaplan turbine ideal for hydropower plants in locations where there is a
low head but a large volume of water flow, such as rivers or dams.
 Centrifugal Pumps

A centrifugal pump is a mechanical device designed to move fluid by converting rotational kinetic
energy into hydrodynamic energy. It is one of the most commonly used types of pumps, especially
in industries, for water, oil, chemicals, and other fluids. The major parts of pump are :

1. Casing
• The casing is the outer shell that encases the pump components and fluid.
• It is typically spiral or volute-shaped to allow fluid to flow smoothly and guide it to the
discharge outlet.
• The casing increases the fluid pressure as it moves toward the pump's outlet.
2. Impeller
• The impeller is the rotating component of the pump that directly drives fluid movement.
• It is mounted on a rotating shaft and features blades (or vanes) that accelerate the fluid.
• Types of impellers:

• Open impeller: Blades are free on both sides, used for handling solids.
• Semi-open impeller: One side of the blades is enclosed.
• Closed impeller: Both sides of the blades are covered, commonly used for clean
fluids.
• The impeller imparts kinetic energy to the fluid by rotating at high speeds.
3. Suction and Discharge Ports
• Suction Port: The inlet where the fluid enters the pump. It’s typically at the center of the
impeller to ensure smooth entry of the fluid.
• Discharge Port: The outlet from which the pressurized fluid exits after gaining energy
from the impeller.
4. Shaft
• The shaft connects the impeller to the motor or driver. It transfers the rotational energy
from the motor to the impeller.
• Shaft sealing: Packing or mechanical seals are used to prevent leakage along the shaft.
 Working

A centrifugal pump works by converting mechanical energy into kinetic energy and then into
pressure energy. Here’s an explanation of its working principle, excluding the focus on parts:

1. Energy Transfer: The pump is driven by an external power source, such as a motor or
turbine. This power source rotates the impeller at high speeds. The impeller consists of
curved blades that force the water (or any working fluid) to move outward.
2. Acceleration of Water: As the impeller rotates, water enters near the center (at the inlet)
and is pushed outward due to the centrifugal force. This outward movement causes the
water to accelerate and gain velocity.
3. Kinetic to Pressure Energy: As the water moves from the center towards the outer edges,
the kinetic energy (velocity) of the water increases. At the outer edge (in the diffuser), the
velocity energy is gradually converted into pressure energy.
4. Diffusion Process: The diffuser surrounds the impeller. As water exits the impeller at high
velocity, it enters the diffuser where the flow area increases. This reduction in speed causes
the water’s kinetic energy to be transformed into pressure energy (as velocity decreases,
pressure rises).
5. Pressurized Water Output: After the water passes through the diffuser, it exits the pump
at a higher pressure than it had when it entered. This pressurized water can then be used
for various applications, such as in cooling systems or desalination plants.

In summary, a water centrifugal pump operates by rotating an impeller, which imparts velocity to
the water. The velocity is then converted into pressure as the water moves through the diffuser,
delivering compressed water at a higher-pressure level.

Applications
Centrifugal water pump are commonly used in applications that require the movement of large
volumes of water at moderate pressure (0.5 to 10 bar) . Below are the main applications:

1. HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) Systems:

• Chilled Water Systems: Centrifugal pump are widely used in large-scale air conditioning
systems, where they are part of the refrigeration cycle to compress refrigerants that cool
water. The cooled water is then circulated to provide air conditioning in large buildings
like offices, hospitals, or malls.
• Water-Cooled Chillers: These pumps provide cooling by compressing refrigerants, which
in turn chill water that is distributed throughout the building for climate control.
2. Desalination Plants:

• Centrifugal water pump are employed in the water treatment industry, particularly in
reverse osmosis desalination plants, to pressurize seawater as part of the desalination
process. The moderate pressure range allows the water to be pushed through membranes
that filter out salts.

3. Industrial Cooling Systems:

• Cooling Towers: In industrial settings, centrifugal pump are often used in water circulation
systems for cooling processes such as those found in chemical manufacturing plants, power
plants, and refineries. These systems rely on pumps to circulate water through heat
exchangers.

4. Water Circulation Systems:

• Centrifugal pumps are used in large-scale water circulation systems where water needs to
be transported over long distances. This includes applications in municipal water systems,
irrigation, and in large industrial plants.

5. Marine and Shipboard Systems:

• Centrifugal water pump are used in ships for various purposes such as circulating chilled
water for air conditioning or for desalination systems onboard ships.

6. Hydroelectric Power Plants:

• In some hydroelectric plants, centrifugal pumps can be part of the cooling systems that
regulate the temperature of turbines and generators by circulating water.

7. Firefighting Systems:

• Centrifugal water pumps are used in firefighting systems, especially in large-scale fire
suppression applications in industrial or commercial buildings where large volumes of
water are required at moderate pressures.

8. Refrigeration Systems:

• In industrial refrigeration setups, centrifugal water pumps are used to compress refrigerants
that chill water, which is used in various cooling applications.

9. Agricultural Irrigation:

• Centrifugal pumps are used in large-scale irrigation systems to pump water over long
distances to fields, ensuring adequate water supply for crops.

10. Pumping Stations:

• These pumps are used in municipal water supply pumping stations, where large quantities
of water need to be moved at moderate pressure to storage facilities or distribution
networks.
 Reciprocating Pump

A single-acting water reciprocating pump is a type of positive displacement pump that uses a
piston to move water. The pump consists of following components:

Main Components
1. Cylinder: This is the main chamber where the piston moves back and forth. It’s typically
made of durable materials like cast iron or stainless steel to withstand high pressure.
2. Piston: The piston moves inside the cylinder, creating suction and discharge actions. It’s
connected to a piston rod.
3. Piston Rod: This rod connects the piston to the crankshaft via a connecting rod.
4. Crank and Connecting Rod: The crank is rotated by an electric motor. The connecting
rod converts this rotational motion into the reciprocating motion of the piston.
5. Suction Pipe: This pipe connects the pump to the water source. It has a suction valve that
opens to allow water into the cylinder during the suction stroke.
6. Delivery Pipe: This pipe carries the pressurized water from the cylinder to the desired
location. It has a delivery valve that opens during the discharge stroke to allow water to
flow out.
7. Suction and Delivery Valves: These are one-way valves that ensure water flows in the
correct direction.

Working Principle
1. Suction Stroke: When the piston moves back, it creates a vacuum in the cylinder. This
causes the suction valve to open, allowing water to flow into the cylinder from the
suction pipe.
2. Discharge Stroke: When the piston moves forward, it compresses the water in the
cylinder. This pressure closes the suction valve and opens the delivery valve, forcing the
water out through the delivery pipe.

Applications
The common applications of Water Reciprocating Pump are :

1. High-Pressure Water Supply

• Application: Supplying water at high pressures (5 to 250 bar), such as for cleaning systems
or pressurized fluid transport.
• Examples:
o Car washes.
o High-pressure cleaning systems.
o Water jet cutting.
2. Oil and Gas Industry
• Application: Used for injecting chemicals, transferring crude oil, and providing pressure
to various processes.
• Examples:
o Chemical injection in pipelines.
o Pumping crude oil from wells.
o Oil refinery processes.

3. Hydraulic Systems
• Application: In hydraulic power systems, where fluid is pressurized to transmit force.
• Examples:
o Hydraulic presses.
o Hydraulic machinery (lifting equipment, cranes, etc.).

4. Chemical Industry
• Application: Pumping chemicals, often under high pressure and in controlled amounts.
• Examples:
o Metering and dosing pumps for chemicals.
o Transferring corrosive and viscous fluids.

5. Water and Wastewater Treatment

• Application: Used to dose chemicals and handle sludge in water treatment facilities.
• Examples:
o Dosing of chemicals for water treatment (chlorine, alum).
o Sludge dewatering and transfer.

6. Food and Beverage Industry

• Application: For transporting food-grade liquids, syrups, or fluids in controlled
quantities.
• Examples:
o Pumping liquids in beverage bottling plants.
o Metering syrups and flavoring additives.

7. Pharmaceutical Industry
• Application: Precise dosing and transfer of sensitive fluids and chemicals.
• Examples:
o Sterile fluid handling.
o Dosing active ingredients during drug production.

8. Marine and Shipbuilding

• Application: Bilge pumping and other onboard water management systems.
• Examples:
o Bilge pumps.
o Ballast water management.

9. Mining Industry
• Application: High-pressure water pumps are used for dust suppression, cleaning, and
hydrostatic pressure testing.
• Examples:
o Pumping water in mining operations.
o Drilling mud pumping.

10. Power Generation

• Application: High-pressure feedwater pumps in steam power plants.
 • Examples:
o Boiler feed pumps in thermal power stations.
o Cooling water systems in power plants.

11. Irrigation Systems

• Application: Reciprocating pumps are used in irrigation systems for lifting water and
providing consistent pressure in remote areas.
• Examples:
o Lifting water from wells or lakes for irrigation.
o Pressurizing water in drip irrigation systems.

12. Firefighting Systems

• Application: Firefighting pumps for high-pressure water delivery in fire suppression
systems.
• Examples:
o Water supply pumps for fire hoses and sprinkler systems.

13. Hydrostatic Testing

• Application: Used to pressurize pipelines and vessels to check for leaks or structural
integrity.
• Examples:
o Testing the pressure tolerance of pipelines and storage tanks.