Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

Module-3
Fundamentals of IC Engines:
Review of Internal Combustion Engines, 2-Strokes and 4-Strokes engines, Components and
working principles, Application of IC Engines in Power Generation, Agriculture, Marine and
Aircraft Propulsion, Automobile.

Insight into future mobility technology; Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Components of
Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, Drives and Transmission. Advantages and disadvantages of EVs
and Hybrid vehicles.

Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning:

Principle of refrigeration, Refrigeration effect, Ton of Refrigeration, COP, Refrigerants and
their desirable properties. Principles and Operation of Vapor Compression and Vapor
absorption refrigeration. Domestic and Industrial Applications of Refrigerator.
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Heat engine is a device which converts heat energy produced due to combustion of fuel
taking place inside the cylinder into mechanical energy. Heat engines are classified into two
categories:
1. Internal combustion engines (1.C. engines) 2. External combustion engines (E.C. engines)
In I.C. engines, combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder whereas in E.C
engines, combustion takes place outside the engine cylinder.

An internal combustion engine (IC Engine) is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel
occurs in the presence of air in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working
fluid flow circuit.

In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure

gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine (Piston).
The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the
component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful work.

Classification Of I.C. Engines

1. According to the type of fuel used

(i) Petrol engine (ii) Diesel engine (iii) Gas engine (iv) Bio-fuel engine.

2. According to the number of strokes per cycle

(i) Four stroke engine (ii) Two stroke engine

3. According to thermodynamic cycle

(i) Otto cycle engine (constant volume combustion) (ii) Diesel cycle (constant pressure
combustion) engine (iii) Dual (or) Mixed cycle (partly constant volume and partly pressure
combustion) engine

4. Method of cooling
(i) Air cooled engine (ii) Water cooled engine

5. According to method of ignition

(i) Spark ignition engine (S.I. engine) (ii) Compression ignition engine (C.1. engine)

6. According to number of cylinders

(i) Single cylinder engine (ii) Multi cylinder engine

7. According to the engine cylinder

(i) Horizontal engine (ii) Vertical engine (iii) V-engine (iv) Radial engine
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Parts of I.C Engine:

Figure: Parts of I.C Engine

1. Cylinder: It is the main body and heart of the engine in which fuel is burnt and piston
reciprocates to develop the power. It is in direct contact with the products of combustion and
it must be cooled to avoid damage.

2. Piston: It is a gas-tight movable cylindrical component fitted perfectly inside the cylinder.
The piston is used to compress the fuel during compression stroke. It transmits the force exerted
by the combustion of fuel to the connecting rod and finally to the crankshaft. Piston is usually
made up of cast iron (or) aluminium alloy.

3. Cylinder head: One end of the cylinder is closed by means of a removable plate known as
cylinder head. Cylinder head usually contains the inlet valve for admitting the mixture of air
and fuel and exhaust valve for discharging the products of combustion.

4. Piston rings: Piston rings are metallic rings and are fitted in the circumferential grooves
provided at the top end outer surface of the piston. It gives gas tight sealing between the piston
and cylinder while the piston reciprocating inside the cylinder. Piston rings maintain
compression pressure inside the cylinder and prevent leakage of high-pressure gases into the
crank case.

5. Connecting rod: It is a kinematic link that connects the piston and the crank. It converts
reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of crank. Its small end is connected to the
piston with the help of piston pin and big end to the crank-by-crank pin. It transmits the force
from piston to crank.
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6. Crank and Crankshaft: The crank is a rotating element with one of its ends connected to
the lower end of the connecting rod while the other is connected to the shaft called crankshaft.
It rotates about the axis of the crankshaft and causes the connecting rod to oscillate. The
crankshaft is supported in the main bearings and has a flywheel mounted on it to reduce the
fluctuation of speed. The main function of crankshaft is to transmit the power developed by the
engine to useful work (to run vehicle, boat, ship etc.)

7. Crankcase: It is the lower part of the engine serving as an enclosure for the crankshaft and
also acts as an oil sump for lubricating oil.

8. Valves: Two types of valves i.e., inlet and exhaust valves located on the cylinder head (or)
on the side of the cylinder.
(1) Inlet valve: It is provided on the cylinder head for regulating the charge coming
into the cylinder.
(2) Exhaust valve: It is provided on the cylinder head for removing exhaust gases
(products of combustion) from the cylinder.

9. Flywheel: It is a wheel mounted on the crankshaft which stores excess energy during the
power stroke and releases (or) returns that energy during the other three idle strokes, thus
maintaining the uniform rotation of the crankshaft.

10. CAM: Cam is a rotating element used to control the opening and closing of valves. Cams
are designed in such a way that to open the valve at the correct timing and to keep them open
for the required duration and to close them at the correct time.

11. Spark plug / Fuel injector: In case of petrol engines, the spark plug provides the spark at
the end of compression stroke to initiate the combustion process. In case of diesel engines,
spark plug is replaced by fuel injector which injects diesel into the compressed air to initiate
the combustion process.

I. C Engine Terminology:

Figure: I. C Engine Terminology

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1. Bore (d): Inside diameter of the engine cylinder is called bore. It is denoted by a letter'd
2. Top dead centre (TDC): The extreme position (topmost) of the piston towards cover end
(or) cylinder head is known as TDC. In case of horizontal engine, this position is called inner
dead centre position (IDC).
3. Bottom dead centre (BDC): The extreme position (bottom most) of the piston towards the
crank end of the cylinder is called BDC. In case of horizontal engine, this position is called
outer dead centre position (ODC).
4. Stroke (L): The linear distance through which the piston travel from TDC to BDC (or) vice
versa is called stroke It is equal to the twice of the radius of the crank. It is designated by the
latter L.
L=2r
5. Clearance volume (V): The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of piston when
the piston is at TDC (or) volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is at TDC is called
clearance volume. It is designated by and is pressed in cc.
6. Swept volume (K) (OR) Stroke volume: The volume swept by the working piston during
one stroke. ie., when moving from TDC to BDC is called swept volume. It is designated by V

Vs = A x L = π x d2 x L /4

7. Volume of the cylinder (V): It is sum of the clearance volume and swept volume. It is
designated by V.
V = Vc + Vs
8. Compression Ratio: It is the ratio of the total volume of the cylinder to the clearance
volume.
C.R. = V/Vc

9. Piston speed: As the piston moves inside the cylinder, its speed changes continuously. The
average speed of the piston is called piston speed. Mean (or) average piston speed = 2LN/ 60
where L length of the stroke, N= rotational speed of the crank.

Four Stroke Petrol Engine:

It works on the constant volume cycle (or) otto cycle. The main components of the
engine are cylinder, piston, connecting rod, crankshaft, inlet and exhaust valves, valve opening
mechanism and ignition system. The spark plug fitted at the top of the cover end initiates the
ignition of the petrol. The charge used in a 4-s petrol engine is a mixture of air and fuel (petrol)
and is supplied by carburettor in suitable proportions. Petrol engines are also called spark
ignition engines since the charge is ignited by the spark generated by the spark plug fitted at
the top of the cover end.
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Figure: p-v diagram of Otto Cycle

Figure: Working of 4-stroke petrol Engine

Working
The working of four stroke petrol engine is based on the four strokes. Figure shows the
schematic representation of four stroke petrol engine,

1. Suction stroke: The suction stroke starts when the piston is at TDC and about to move
downwards. At this time, inlet valve is open and the exhaust valve is closed. In this situation,
piston moves from TDC to BDC in downward direction. Pressure in the cylinder slightly less
than the atmospheric pressure. As the piston moves downwards, suction is created in the
cylinder and fresh charge of air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder through inlet valve. When the
piston reaches BDC, the suction stroke ends and the inlet valve closes.

2. Compression stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC in upward
direction, both inlet and exhaust valves are kept closed and compresses the charge of air-fuel
mixture. The compression ratio varies from 6-10 for petrol engine. At the end of compression
stroke, spark is produced by the spark plug fitted at the top of the cylinder head and combustion
takes place.

3. Power stroke: During this stroke, both valves are kept closed. The high pressure burnt gases
(products of combustion) expands and forces the piston in downward direction. In this
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situation, piston is pushed from TDC to BDC and rotates the crankshaft at high speed. Since
the work is done during this stroke, it is known as power stroke. Crankshaft inturns drives the
machine connected to it. Both temperature and pressure decrease during expansion.

4. Exhaust stroke: During exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve is open and inlet. valve is closed.
The piston moves from BDC to TDC pushing the burnt gases to atmosphere through open
exhaust valve. The exhaust valve closes after the piston reaches TDC so as to allow the fresh
charge to enter the cylinder and the cycle repeats. Excess energy developed in power stroke is
stored in the flywheel which helps for the operation of 3 idle strokes.

Each cylinder of a four-stroke engine completes the above four operations in two engine
revolutions, one revolution of the crankshaft occurs during the suction and compression strokes
and the second revolution occurs during the power and exhaust strokes. There is only one power
stroke for one completed cycle.

Four Stroke Diesel Engine:

Diesel engine works on the diesel cycle (constant pressure combustion cycle). In this
type of engine fuel injector is used for injection of fuels. They are also called as compression
ignition engines (C.I engines). The compression ratio is 14-20 for C.I engines. Due to the use
of high compression ratio, the temperature a compression stroke is significantly high to self-
ignite the fuel which is injected into the chamber.
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Working
The schematic representation of sequence of operations for 4-s diesel engine is shown
in figure

Figure: Working of Four Stroke Diesel Engine

1. Suction stroke: Suction stroke starts when the piston is at TDC and about to move
downwards. At this time, inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is closed. In this situation, piston
moves from TDC to BDC in downward direction. As the piston moves downward, suction is
created (or) negative pressure is created in the cylinder and the fresh air is sucked into the
cylinder through inlet valve. The pressure inside the cylinder will be slightly less than the
atmospheric pressure. When the piston reaches BDC, suction stroke ends and inlet valve closes.
2. Compression stroke: During this stroke, piston moves from BDC to TDC and both the
valves are kept closed. As the piston moves upward, the air gets compressed to high pressure
and temperature. Just at the end of compression stroke, the fuel is being injected in the form of
spray into the compressed air by a fuel injector and combustion of fuel takes place. The
temperature of the compressed air is sufficient to auto ignite the fuel without the need of spark.
Combustion of fuel takes place at constant pressure. The products of combustion (burnt gases)
are formed.
3. Working stroke: In expansion stroke both the valves remain closed. Expansion of products
of combustion takes place and the piston moves in the downward direction to BDC. The work
is done during this stroke.
4. Exhaust stroke: During this stroke, exhaust valve opens and inlet valve remains closed. The
piston moves from BDC to TDC. The piston while moving from BDC to TDC drives the burnt
gases into atmosphere through the open exhaust valve so as to make room for the fresh charge
(only air) to enter the cylinder. The exhaust valve closes after the piston reaches the TDC. This
completes the cycle.
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TWO-STROKE ENGINE:
In a two-stroke engine, piston moves up and down, total two times, completing a cycle.
In other words, the cycle of operation is completed in two strokes of the piston (or) one
revolution of the crankshaft. The two-stroke engine cycle was invented by a British engineer
Sir Dugald Clark (1878). Two stroke engines are used in scooters, motor cycles etc. Instead of
valve and valve mechanism, two stroke engine consists of 3 ports, namely, exhaust port,
transfer port and inlet port. These ports are opened and closed by the movement of the piston
itself.

Two-Stroke (2-s) Petrol Engine

Description:
2-s petrol engine works on the theoretical otto cycle. The cycle consists of two-strokes (i)
upward Stroke (ii) downward stroke, completed in one revolution of the crankshaft. the charge
used is a mixture of air and fuel (petrol). The charge is ignited by a spark produced by a spark
plug provided at the top of the cylinder head. The function of 3 ports:

(i) Inlet port: Through which petrol and air mixture admits into the crankcase Exhaust
port: Through which waste gases are expelled out of the cylinder
(ii) Exhaust port: Through which waste gases are expelled out of the cylinder.
(iii) Transfer port: Through which petrol and air mixture is transferred from crankcase
in the cylinder, which is mounted diagrammatically opposite to the exhaust port but
slightly a lower level.
Working
In 2-Stroke engine cycle, all four operations ie., suction, compression, expansion and
exhaust are performed in two strokes of the piston. Its schematic representation is shown in
figure.

Figure: Two Stroke Petrol Engine

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(1) First stroke (Downward stroke)

At the beginning of the first stroke, the piston is at the TDC. In this piston, the inter part
is kept opened and other two ports are closed. The mixture of air and fuel is drawn is the crank
case due to the vacuum produced by the upward movement of the piston. Also, the air and fuel
mixture above the piston is compressed. The compression ratio for petrol engine varies from
7-10. The compressed charge above the piston is ignited by an electric spark generated by a
spark plug. The combustion of fuel will release high pressure hot gases. These high-pressure
hot gases expanded and push the piston in downward direction from TDC to BDC. This
operation is called power stroke (or) expansion stroke. During downward motion, the inlet port
is closed and mixture will get compressed inside the crankcase. Further downward movement
of the piston uncovers first the exhaust port and then the transfer port. The burnt gases are sent
to the atmosphere through exhaust port after having work on the piston and the compressed
change in the crank case will enter to the space in the cylinder above the piston through transfer
port. Because of the special shape of the piston crown (deflection inclined at 45°), the mixture
is deflected up and is prevented from going out directly through exhaust port. Also, deflected
mixture helps in pushing the exhaust gases out. Thus, during the downward stroke of the piston,
we get the operation of power, exhaust and suction (intake).

(ii) Second stroke (Upward stroke)

During this stroke, piston moves from BDC to TDC. When piston moves upwards, it
covers the transfer port as shown in figure and supply of charge is cut off. Further movement
of piston covers the exhaust port completely as shown in figure. After closing the exhaust port,
the air-fuel mixture above the piston gets compressed and the cycle is repeated. When the piston
is pushed up by the flywheel, the following sequence of operations take place.
1. Closing of transfer port
2. Closing of exhaust port
3. Opening of inlet port

Application of IC Engines in Power Generation:

A generating station in which diesel engine is used as the prime mover for the
generation of electrical energy is known as diesel power station.
In a diesel power station, diesel engine is used as the prime mover. The diesel burns inside the
engine and the products of this combustion act as the working fluid to produce mechanical
energy. The diesel engine drives alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. As the generation cost is considerable due to high price of diesel, therefore, such power
stations are only used to produce small power.
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Figure: Layout of Diesel Engine Power plant

Application of IC Engines in Agriculture:

Agricultural mechanization uses basically Diesel internal combustion engines, which
require energy stored in liquid form, as most agricultural operations are carried out in motion,
for tractors, harvesters, and self-propelled sprinklers, among others. Currently, much of this
fuel is mineral, which is from finite and non-renewable source.

Figure: Tractors and Harvesters

Application of IC Engines in Marine:
Modern marine power plants have been designed to improve the overall ship’s
efficiency. During the previous years, diesel oil has been extensively used on-board ships. Due
to the high price of light diesel oil and the environmental problems resulting from the use of
heavy fuel oil, it has become necessary to search for an alternative to traditional fuels. As a
result, natural gas fuel has been used on-board some types of ships, especially short-voyage
cruise ships.
The use of hydrogen fuel on-board ships, particularly in modern power plants may
contribute to overcoming the above problems. Compared to the diesel engine, the hydrogen
fuelled engine is found to be lower in thermal efficiency and fuel consumption, however, some
adjustments are needed.
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Application of IC Engine in Aircraft Propulsion:

Airplanes used internal combustion engines to turn propellers to generate thrust. Today,
most general aviation or private airplanes are still powered by propellers and internal
combustion engines, much like automobile engine.

The basic mechanical design of the Wright engine is remarkably similar to modern, four-stroke,
four-cylinder automobile engines. On the power stroke the piston turns a crank which converts
the linear motion of the piston into circular motion. The turning crankshaft is then used to turn
the aircraft propeller. Many different types of IC engines are used depending upon the
application and size of the aircraft. Some of the IC Engines used in Aircraft propulsions are:
horizontal opposed engines, radial Engines, V-type engines.

Comparison between 4-Stroke and 2-Stroke Engine:

Sl.
4-Stroke Engine 2-Stroke Engine
No
1 Four Stokes, two revolutions of crankshaft, Two strokes, one revolution of crank shaft,
one power stoke in two revolutions of crank one power stoke in each revolution of crank
Shaft shaft
2 Heavier Fly wheel Lighter Flywheel

3 Weight of engine per hp is high Weight of engine per hp is comparatively low

4 There are inlet and exhaust valves in the There are inlet and exhaust ports instead of
engine valve
5 Thermal efficiency is high Thermal efficiency is comparatively low

6 Lesser cooling and lubrication, Lower rate of Greater cooling and lubrication,
wear and tear Higher rate of wear and tear
7 Initial cost of engine is more Initial cost is less

8 Used where efficiency is important (Buses, Used where Low cost. Compactness and light
trucks, tractors, aero planes etc.) weight are important (mopeds, scooters,
motorcycle, hand sprayers etc.)
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Insight into future mobility technology

Electric vehicles
An electric vehicle, also called an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more electric motors or
traction motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector system
by electricity from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with a battery, solar panels or
a generator to convert fuel to electricity. In the 21st century, EVs saw a resurgence due to
technological developments and an increased focus on renewable energy.

Configurations of Electric Vehicles

Previously, the EV was mainly converted from the existing ICEV by replacing the internal
combustion engine and fuel tank with an electric motor drive and battery pack while retaining
all the other components, as shown in Figure 4.1. Drawbacks such as its heavy weight, lower
flexibility, and performance degradation have caused the use of this type of EV to fade out.

Figure: Primary electric vehicle power train

The modern EV is built based on original body and frame designs. This satisfies the structure
requirements unique to EVs and makes use of the greater flexibility of electric propulsion. A
modern electric drive train is conceptually illustrated in Figure below.
The drive train consists of three major subsystems: electric motor propulsion, energy source,
and auxiliary.
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Figure: Conceptual illustration of general EV configuration

The electric propulsion subsystem is comprised of a vehicle controller, power electronic

converter, electric motor, mechanical transmission, and driving wheels. The energy source
subsystem involves the energy source, the energy management unit, and the energy refuelling
unit. The auxiliary subsystem consists of the power steering unit, the hotel climate control unit,
and the auxiliary supply unit.
Based on the control inputs from the accelerator and brake pedals, the vehicle controller
provides proper control signals to the electronic power converter, which functions to regulate
the power flow between the electric motor and energy source. The backward power flow is due
to the regenerative braking of the EV and this regenerated energy can be restored to the energy
source, provided the energy source is receptive. The auxiliary power supply provides the
necessary power at different voltage levels for all the EV auxiliaries, especially the hotel
climate control and power steering units.
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Electric and Hybrid Vehicles

A hybrid vehicle combines any two power (energy) sources. Possible combinations include
diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery. Typically, one energy source is
storage, and the other is conversion of a fuel to energy. The combination of two power sources
may support two separate propulsion systems. Thus, to be a True hybrid, the vehicle must have
at least two modes of propulsion.

For example, a truck that uses a diesel to drive a generator, which in turn drives several
electrical motors for all-wheel drive, is not a hybrid. But if the truck has electrical energy
storage to provide a second mode, which is electrical assists, then it is a hybrid Vehicle.

These two power sources may be paired in series, meaning that the gas engine charges the
batteries of an electric motor that powers the car, or in parallel, with both mechanisms driving
the car directly.

Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)

Consistent with the definition of hybrid above, the hybrid electric vehicle combines a gasoline
engine with an electric motor. An alternate arrangement is a diesel engine and an electric motor.

Figure: Components of a hybrid Vehicle that combines a pure gasoline with a pure EV.

As shown in Figure, a HEV is formed by merging components from a pure electrical vehicle
and a pure gasoline vehicle. The Electric Vehicle (EV) has an M/G which allows regenerative
braking for an EV; the M/G installed in the HEV enables regenerative braking. For the HEV,
the M/G is tucked directly behind the engine. The transmission appears next in line. This
arrangement has two torque producers; the M/G in motor mode, M-mode, and the gasoline
engine. The battery and M/G are connected electrically.
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HEVs are a combination of electrical and mechanical components. Three main sources of
electricity for hybrids are batteries, FCs, and capacitors. Each device has a low cell voltage,
and, hence, requires many cells in series to obtain the voltage demanded by an HEV.
• The FC provides high energy but low power.
• The battery supplies both modest power and energy.
• The capacitor supplies very large power but low energy.

Advantages and disadvantages of EVs and Hybrid vehicles

Advantages EVs and Hybrid vehicles:

1. Environmentally Friendly
2. Convenience of Charging
3. Cost-effective
4. Low Maintenance
5. Noiseless operation
6. Battery life and Cost
7. Ease of Driving
8. Regenerative braking System
9. In case of hybrid vehicles, the vehicle is provided with duel powered drives.

Disadvantages of Electric and Hybrid vehicles:

1. Expensive compare to gasoline vehicles
2. Battery replacement cost is very high
3. Battery replacement and recycling
4. Charging point convenience
5. Longer Charging time
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Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning

Principle of refrigeration:
Refrigeration is defined as the branch of science that deals with the process of reducing and
maintaining the temperature of that space or material below the temperature of surroundings.
The system maintained at lower temperature is called as refrigerated system and equipment
used to produce this is called as refrigerator.

The cooling effect produced by refrigerator is termed as refrigerating effect and the working
substance used to produce this effect is known as refrigerant. The heat withdrawn from the
refrigerated space is rejected to atmosphere which acts as a natural heat reservoir. The heat
transfer from the system to surrounding is reduced by providing insulating materials.

1. Refrigerating effect: It is the amount of energy removed as heat from an enclosed space
(cold body) by refrigeration process (OR) it is defined as the rate at which heat can be
extracted from the cold body in one cycle of operation ie., amount of cooling produced by
a system.

2. Unit of refrigeration
Domestic (or) commercial refrigerators are rated at kJ/hr (or) litres. But big
commercial refrigerators are mostly rated in tons of refrigeration.

3. Ton of refrigeration
The capacity of refrigeration is expressed in tons of refrigeration which is the unit of
refrigeration.
One ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat removed from water at 0°C to produce
1 ton of ice in one day (ie., 24 hours) (OR) one ton of refrigeration is defined as the capacity
to freeze one ton of water from and at 0°C (32°F) during a period of 24 hours.
1 ton of refrigeration = 12600 kJ/hr
= 210 kJ/min 3.5 kJ/S
= 3.5 kW (1W = J/S)

4. Coefficient of performance (COP): The performance index of any refrigeration system is

expressed by a term known as the COP. Higher the COP, higher the efficiency of the
refrigeration system.
The COP of a refrigeration system is defined as the ratio of heat extracted in the refrigerator to
the work done on the refrigerant.

COP = Amount of heat extracted (refrigerating effect) in one cycle/ Work done
= Q/W

It is also known as theoretical COP and is always > unity in a refrigerator.

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5. Relative COP
The ratio of the actual COP to the theoretical COP of refrigeration is known as relative COP.
Mathematically,

Relative COP = Actual COP / Theoretical COP

Refrigerants:
The most commonly used refrigerants are:
1. Ammonia-in vapour absorption refrigerator.
2. Carbon dioxide-in marine refrigerators.
3. Sulphur dioxide - in household refrigerators.
4. Methyl chloride-in small scale refrigeration and domestic refrigerators.
5. Freon-12- in domestic vapour compression refrigerators. 6. Freon-22- in Air Conditioners.

Ammonia
Ammonia as a refrigerant is employed in refrigerators operating on the absorption principles.
Because of its high latent heat (1300 kJ/kg at -15°C) and low specific volume (0.509m /kg at -
15°C) it produces high refrigeration effects even in small refrigerators. Since ammonia will not
harm the ozone, it is environmentally friendly. It is widely used in cold storage, ice making
plants, etc. Its toxic, flammable, irritating and food destroying properties makes it unsuitable
for domestic refrigerators.

2. Carbon dioxide
The efficiency of the refrigerators using carbon dioxide refrigerant is low. Therefore, it is
seldom used in domestic refrigerators, but is used in dry ice making plants. It is colourless,
odourless, non-toxic, non-inflammable and non-corrosive.

3. Sulphur dioxide
Earlier sulphur dioxide was one of the most commonly used refrigerants in domestic
refrigerators. Although it has better thermodynamic properties, it has low refrigerating effect
and high specific volume, therefore large capacity high speed compressors are required. Since
it combines with water and forms sulphurous and sulfuric acids which are corrosive to metals,
the refrigerators using sulphur dioxide as refrigerant are seldom used.

4. Methyl Chloride
Methyl chloride was used earlier in domestic and small-scale industrial refrigerators. Since it
will burn under some conditions and slightly toxic, is not generally used.

5. Freon
Freon group of refrigerants is used almost universally in domestic refrigerators. These
refrigerants are colourless, almost odourless, non-toxic, non-inflammable, non-explosive and
non-corrosive, Freon-12 and Freon-22 are the two freon refrigerants commonly used in
domestic refrigerators and air conditioners. Although these refrigerants are now being used
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extensively in the refrigerators and the air conditioners, it has been found that these refrigerants
are posing a major threat to the global environment through their role in the destruction of the
ozone layer.

Desirable Properties of Good Refrigerants:

1. Boiling Point: An ideal refrigerant must have low boiling temperature at atmospheric
pressure.

2. Freezing Point: An ideal refrigerant must have a very low freezing point because the
refrigerant should not freeze at low evaporator temperatures.

3. Evaporator and Condenser Pressure: In order to avoid the leakage of the atmospheric air
and also to enable the detection of the leakage of the refrigerant, both the evaporator and
condenser pressures should be slightly above the atmospheric pressure.

4. Latent Heat of Evaporation: The latent heat of evaporation must be very high so that a
minimum amount of refrigerant will accomplish the desired result; in other words, it increases
the refrigeration effect.

5. Specific Volume: The specific volume of the refrigerant must be very low. The lower
specific volume of the refrigerant at the suction of the compressor reduces the size of the
compressor.

6. Specific heat of liquid and vapour: A good refrigerant must have low specific heat when
it is in liquid state and high specific heat when it is vapourised. The low specific heat of the
refrigerant helps in sub-cooling of the liquid and high specific heat of the vapour helps in
decreasing the superheating of the vapour. Both these desirable properties increase the
refrigerating effect.

7. Viscosity: The viscosity of a refrigerant at both the liquid and vapour states must be very
low as it improves the heat transfer and reduces the pumping pressure.

8. non-toxicity refrigerant: A good refrigerant should be non-toxic, because any leakage of

the toxic refrigerant increases suffocation and poisons the atmosphere.

9. Corrosiveness: A good refrigerant should be non-corrosive to prevent the corrosion of the

metallic parts of the refrigerators.

10. Chemical Stability: An ideal refrigerant must not decompose under operating conditions.

11. Coefficient of Performance: The coefficient of performance of a refrigerant must be high

so that the energy spent in refrigeration will be less.
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12. Odour: A good refrigerant must be odourless, otherwise some foodstuff such as meat,
butter etc. loses their taste.

Principles and Operation of Vapor Compression Refrigeration:

Figure: Construction & working principle of Vapour Compression refrigeration

The schematic arrangement of Vapour Compression refrigeration system is as shown in the

above figure.

1. Compression: During the Suction stroke of compressor, low-pressure vapour in dry state is
drawn from the evaporator. Here, the temperature and pressure of vapour increases until the
vapour temperature is temperature. greater than the condenser

2. Condensation: During condensation, high pressure refrigerant vapour enters the condenser
where the cooling medium absorbs the heat and converts the vapour into liquid.

3. Expansion: After condensation, the liquid refrigerant is stored in the receiver and from
receiver it is passed to evaporator through expansion or throttle valve. This valve reduces the
pressure by keeping the enthalpy constant (Throttling process).
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4. Evaporation (Vaporization): After expansion, low pressure liquid refrigerant enters in

evaporator where considerable amount of heat is absorbed by it and I converted into vapour.
This low-pressure vapour is sucked by the compressor and the cycle repeats.

Principles and Operation of Vapor Absorption Refrigeration:

Figure: Construction and working of Vapour absorption refrigerator

The vapour absorption system consists of absorbing the refrigerant. (NH3) after leaving the
evaporator.
• The VAR system differs from VCR system only in the method of compression of refrigerant.
• The basic components of the vapour absorption refrigeration systems are as

 Evaporator
 Absorber
 Circulating Pump
 Heat Exchanger
 Heater-Separator
 Expansion Valve
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The ammonia vapour leaving the evaporator is absorbed in the low temperature solution in the
absorber. Here heat is rejected from the ammonia vapours. The strong solution of ammonia
and water is pumped to Heat exchanger raising its pressure.

This solution is heated in the heater-separator and hence ammonia vapours are separated from
water. The weak ammonia in water solution is returned to the absorber.
The ammonia vapours from the generator are passed to the condenser where vapours reject
heat to condensing medium. The condensed ammonia liquid passes through the expansion
valve in which the pressure and temperature is reduced.

The low temperature, low pressure liquid ammonia passes through the evaporator and take out
the heat from the refrigerated space and vaporises and the cycle continues.
In this system, compression work is less than that of vapour compression system. The heat
input is necessary to the generator in the form of steam or gas.

Domestic and Industrial Applications of Refrigerator

I. Application of refrigeration in Food processing, preservation and distribution

a. Storage of Raw Fruits and Vegetables
b. Storage of fish
c. Storage of Meat and poultry
d. Storage of Dairy Products
e. Storage of Beverages

II. Applications of refrigeration in chemical and process industries

o
a. Separation of gases: In petrochemical plant, temperatures as low as –150 C
with refrigeration capacities as high as 10,000 Tons of Refrigeration (TR) are
used for separation of gases by fractional distillation.
b. Condensation of Gases: some gases that are produced synthetically, are
condensed to liquid state by cooling, so that these can be easily stored and
transported in liquid state. For example, in synthetic ammonia plant, ammonia
o
is condensed at –10 to 10 C before filling in the cylinders, storage and shipment.
c. Dehumidification of Air: Low humidity air is required in many pharmaceutical
industries. It is also required for air liquefaction plants. This is also required to
prevent static electricity and prevents short circuits in places where high
voltages are used. The air is cooled below its dew point temperature, so that
some water vapour condenses out and the air gets dehumidified.
d. Storage as liquid at low pressure: Liquid occupies less space than gases. Most
of the refrigerants are stored at high pressure. This pressure is usually their
saturation pressure at atmospheric temperature.
e. Removal of Heat of Reaction: In many chemical reactions, efficiency is better
if the reaction occurs below room temperature. This requires refrigeration. If
these reactions are exothermic in nature, then more refrigeration capacities are
required.
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III. Special applications of refrigeration

a. Cold Treatment of Metals: The dimensions of precision parts and gauge blocks
o
can be stabilized by soaking the product at temperature around – 90 C. The
hardness and wear resistance of carburized steel can be increased by this
process.
b. Medical: Blood plasma and antibiotics are manufactured by freeze-drying
process where water is made to sublime at low pressure and low temperature.
This does not affect the tissues of blood.
c. Ice Skating Rinks: Due to the advent of artificial refrigeration, sports like ice
hockey and skating do not have to depend upon freezing weather. These can be
played in indoor stadium where water is frozen into ice on the floor. Refrigerant
or brine carrying pipes are embedded below the floor, which cools and freezes
the water to ice over the floor.
d. Construction: Setting of concrete is an exothermic process. If the heat of setting
is not removed the concrete will expand and produce cracks in the structure.
Concrete may be cooled by cooling sand, gravel and water before mixing them
or by-passing chilled water through the pipes embedded in the concrete.
e. Ice Manufacture: This was the classical application of refrigeration. Ice was
manufactured in plants by dipping water containers in chilled brine and it used
to take about 36 hours to freeze all the water in cans into ice. The ice thus formed
was stored in ice ware houses.

Air Conditioning:
Air conditioning is the process of controlling and maintaining the moisture content (Humidity)
and temperature of air as per prescribed limits. Air conditioning is broadly divided into two
categories – comfort air conditioning and industrial air conditioning.

• Comfort air conditioning is the controlling of humidity and temperature of air to give
maximum comfort to the human beings.

• Industrial air conditioning is required in controlling the humidity and temperature in

processing and manufacturing industries.

Although the cooling and conditioning of the air required for comfort air conditioning more
or less same in any part of the globe, the industrial air conditioning needs to be designed to suit
the specific individual application.
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Concept and operation of Centralized air conditioning system

Central air conditioning (or central A/C) is a system in which air is cooled at a central location
and distributed to and from rooms by one or more fans and ductwork. The work of the air
conditioner compressor is what makes the whole process of air conditioning possible. The
compression of the refrigerant gas enables it to discharge heat out of the house, which is how
the cool air is created.

Figure: Basic Central Refrigeration system

Figure: Working of Central Air Conditioning System

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The compressor (which is controlled by the thermostat) is the "heart" of the system.
The compressor acts as the pump, causing the refrigerant to flow through the system. Its job is
to draw in a low pressure, low temperature, refrigerant in a gaseous state and by compressing
this gas, raise the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant. This high pressure, high
temperature gas then flows to the condenser coil.
The condenser coil is a series of piping with a fan that draws outside air across the coil.
As the refrigerant passes through the condenser coil and the cooler outside air passes across
the coil, the air absorbs heat from the refrigerant, which causes the refrigerant to condense from
a gas to a liquid state. The high-pressure, high-temperature liquid then reaches the expansion
valve.
The expansion valve is the "brain" of the system. By sensing the temperature of the
evaporator, or cooling coil, it allows liquid to pass through a very small opening, which causes
the refrigerant to expand to a low-pressure, low-temperature gas. This "cold" refrigerant flows
to the evaporator.
The evaporator coil is a series of piping connected to a furnace or air handler that blows indoor
air across it, causing the coil to absorb heat from the air. The cooled air is then delivered to the
house through ducting. The refrigerant then flows back to the compressor where the cycle starts
over again.

Application of air conditioning

Air conditioning applications can be divided into two categories, namely industrial and comfort
air-conditioning.

Industrial Air Conditioning: The main purpose of industrial air conditioning systems is to
provide conducive conditions so that the required processes can be carried out and required
products can be produced.

a) Laboratories: This may involve precision measurement to performance testing of

materials, equipment and processes at controlled temperature and relative humidity.
Laboratories carrying out research in electronics and biotechnology areas require very
clean atmosphere. Many laboratories using high voltage like in LASERS require very
low humidity to avoid the sparking.
b) Printing: Some colour printing presses have one press for each colour. The paper
passes from one press to another press. The ink of one colour must get dried before it
reaches the second press, so that the colours do not smudge. And the paper should not
shrink, so that the picture does not get distorted. This requires control over temperature
as well humidity. Improper humidity may cause static electricity, curling and buckling
of paper.
c) Manufacture of Precision Parts: If the metal parts are maintained at uniform
temperature during manufacturing process, these will neither expand nor shrink,
maintaining close tolerances. A lower relative humidity will prevent rust formation
also.
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d) Textile Industry: The yarn in the textile industry is spun and it moves over spools at
very high speeds in modem machines. It is very sensitive to humidity. The generation
of static electricity should be avoided. Its flexibility and strength should not change. If
it breaks during the process, the plant will have to be stopped and yarn repaired before
restarting the plant.
e) Pharmaceutical Industries: In these industries to obtain sterile atmosphere, the
airborne bacteria and dust must be removed in the air-conditioning system by filters.
These industries require clean rooms. If capsules are made or used in the plant, then air
has to be dry otherwise the gelatin of capsules will become sticky.
f) Computer Rooms: These require control of temperature. humidity and cleanliness.
The temperature of around 25 °C and relative humidity of 50% is maintained in these
rooms. The dust spoils the CD drives and printers etc. hence the rooms have to be kept
clean also by using micro filters in the air-conditioning system.
g) Power Plants: Most of the modem power plants are processor controlled. In the earlier
designs, the control rooms were very large and were provided with natural ventilation.
These days the control rooms are very compact, hence these require air conditioning
for persons and the microprocessors.

Vehicular Air-conditioning Bus. tram, truck, car, recreational vehicle. crane cabin. aircraft and
ships all require air-conditioning. In bus, tram aircraft and ship, the occupancy density is very
high and the metabolic heat and water vapour generated by persons has to be rejected. The
cooling load in these is very high and rapidly changes that provides a challenge for their design.

Questions:

Internal Combustion Engine:

1. How are 1.C. Engines are classified?
2. Classify the I.C. Engines based on the thermodynamic cycle. Draw the theoretical PV
diagrams of a spark and compression ignition engines and name all the processes.
3. Explain with a neat sketch, naming all the parts, the working of a single cylinder four
stroke petrol engine.
4. Explain the working of a two-stroke petrol engine.
5. With the help of a PV diagram explain the working of a four-stroke diesel engine.
6. Draw a neat sketch of a two-stroke petrol engine and describe the working principle in
brief.
7. Explain the working of a two-stroke diesel engine with a neat sketch.
8. Distinguish between two-stroke and four stroke 1.C. engines.
9. What are the advantages of a two-stroke engine over a four-stroke engine?
10. Compare a two-stroke engine with a four-stroke engine.
11. Compare a petrol engine with a diesel engine.
12. Distinguish between spark ignition and compression ignition.
 Elements of Mechanical Engineering [21EME15/25]

Electric & Hybrid Vehicles

1. What are hybrid Vehicles? How they are different from conventional Gasoline vehicles.
2. List the Advantages of Electric vehicles compare to conventional vehicles.
3. Describe how hybrid vehicles are differ from Electric vehicles.
4. With help a line diagram describe the working principle of Electric vehicle

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

1. xplain the basic concepts of refrigeration.
2. Explain the principle of refrigeration.
3. Show the main parts of a refrigerator using a simple sketch and explain their functions.
4. Define refrigeration effect, unit of Refrigeration, Ice making capacity, co-efficient of
performance and relative coefficient of performance.
5. What is the difference between refrigerator and refrigeration?
6. Sketch and name the important parts of a vapour compression refrigerator.
7. Explain with a neat sketch the working of a vapour compression refrigerator.
8. Describe with a neat sketch the working of a vapour absorption refrigerator.
9. What is the difference in the basic principle of working of vapour compression and
vapour absorption refrigerators?
10. Name the refrigerants that are commonly used.
11. What are the properties of a good refrigerant? Explain.
12. Explain the principle of air conditioning.
13. What is the difference between comfort air conditioning and industrial air conditioning?
14. Write a short note on Centralised Air Conditioning.
15. List and explain the industrial application of Air conditioning.
16. With Suitable example enumerate the application of refrigeration in Food Processing
Industry
17. Describe how refrigeration is used in chemical and process industries with suitable
examples.