Topic of

Class
Solutions
 How are you seeing this glass?

} Half Air

} Half Water

Option 1: The glass is half-full.

Option 2: Truly the glass is completely full.

Are you an optimist or a pessimist?

 COURSE OUTLINE

Types of Solution,
Factors Influencing the Solubility of Substance.
Mechanism of Dissolution;
Solution of Gases in Liquids,
Different Units of Concentration,
Distribution Law and its Application;
Properties of Dilute Solution,
Raoult's Law (of lowering of vapor pressure)- its Application,
Elevation of Boiling Point,
Depression of Freezing Point and Osmotic Pressure.
 MIXTURE
What is mixture?
Mixture is a combination of mutually non-reactive two or more
different substances.

For example,
a) Combination of salt and sugar
b) Combination of salt and sand
c) Combination of sand and sugar
d) Combination of salt, sand and sugar
e) Combination of salt, sugar and iron dust
f) Combination of salt, sand, sugar and iron dust
Above (a) to (f) all are mixtures.

If sufficient amount of water is added to above all those mixtures

new one (mixture) will form for each case. The new mixture
resulting from (a) is different from others. Because there is only
one (single) phase in former and more than one phase in later
ones. So we can say that, there are two types of mixture:
 TYPES OF MIXTURE

Mixtures

Homogeneous Heterogeneous
mixture mixture
 TYPES OF MIXTURE

Homogeneous mixture: only one

phase is present here. Examples,
salt and water, sugar and water.

Heterogeneous mixture: more

than one phase is present here.
Examples, salt and sand, sand and
water.
TYPES OF MIXTURE
TYPES OF MIXTURE
 SOLUTION
Define solution.

Solution is a homogeneous mixture of mutually non-

reactive two or more different substances in ionic or
molecular level.
For example, when a small amount of sugar is added to
a glass of water and slightly stirred with a stick, it forms
a homogeneous mixture which is a solution.

In this solution sugar molecules are uniformly dispersed

in the molecules of water.

When a small amount of sodium chloride (NaCl) salt is

added to a glass of water and slightly stirred with a
stick, it also forms a homogeneous mixture which is a
solution. This solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) salt
consists of ions of salt (Na+ and Cl-) uniformly dispersed
in water.
 COMPONENTS OF SOLUTION
A solution contains at least two different
components. They are
1. Solvent and
2. Solute.

1. Solvent: The higher amount

component in the solution is known as
solvent and
2. Solute: The lower amount component
in solution is known as solute.

In the examples, sugar and NaCl are solute

and water is solvent.
Solvent + Solute = Solution
Solvent (water) + Solute (NaCl) = Solution of NaCl

Define solution, solute and solvent with examples of each?

 TYPES OF SOLUTION
Solutions can be classified in different ways. Depending upon the physical
states of solute and solvent, there are seven types of solutions. They are listed
below with examples for each type.

Physical state of Physical state of

Sl Example
solute solute
1 Gas Gas Air
Liquid (carbonated
2 Gas O2 in water, CO2 in water
drinks)
Adsorption of H2 by
3 Gas Solid
platinum
Ethanol in water, methanol
4 Liquid Liquid
in water
5 Liquid Solid Mercury in silver
6 Solid Liquid Salt and sugar in water
Metal alloys are solid
7 Solid Solid
solutions, steel
 TYPES OF SOLUTION
Unsaturated Solutions:
These solutions have not reached their
maximum solute concentration at a given
temperature, meaning more solute could
dissolve.

Saturated Solutions:
Saturated solutions have reached the maximum
amount of solute that can dissolve at a
particular temperature.

Supersaturated Solutions:
These solutions contain more solute than would
normally dissolve at a particular temperature.
They are often created by dissolving a solute at
an elevated temperature and then cooling the
solution.
COMPOSITION OR CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION

The concentration of a solution can be defined as the amount of solute

present in a given amount of solvent/solution.

amount of solute
Concentration of solution =
amount of solvent or solution

Concentration of a solution can be expressed in different terms. Such as

1. Molarity
2. Molality
3. Normality
4. Mole fraction
5. Percent (generally w/w%, w/v%, v/v%)
6. ppm (parts per million, mg per liter)
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: MOLARITY
What is Molarity?
Molarity of a solution is defined as the number of moles of solute
per litre of the solution.

1 mole solute + solvent = 1 litre solution (1 molar).

Example, 1 mole H2SO4 (98 g) + solvent (water) = 1 litre H2SO4

solution (1 molar).
𝑤 × 1000
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐶 =
𝑀 × 𝑉 (𝑚𝑙)
Here,
w = amount of the solute
M = molecular weight of the solute
V = volume of the solution in ml
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: MOLARITY

Problem: What is the molarity of a solution prepared by

dissolving 75.5 g of pure potassium hydroxide (MW =
56.1056 g/mol) in 540 ml of solution?
(Ans 2.50 M, Essentials of physical chemistry by Bahl and Tuli,
page 531).

Lets try together.

Problem: What is the weight of HCl present in 155 ml of a 0.540
M solution?
(Ans 3.06 g of HCl; Essentials of physical chemistry by Bahl, Bahl
and Tuli, page 532)
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: MOLALITY

What is Molality?
Molality of a solution is defined as the number of moles of solute
per kilogram (1000 g) of solvent.

1 mole solute + 1 kg (1000 g) solvent = 1 molal solution (volume is

inconsiderate).

1 mole H2SO4 (98 g) + 1 kg (1000 g) solvent (water) = 1 molal

H2SO4 solution.
𝑤 × 1000
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐶𝑚 =
𝑀 × 𝑊 (𝑔)
Here,
w = amount of the solute
M = molecular weight of the solute
W = amount of the solvent in g
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: MOLALITY

Problem: 5.0 g of toluene (C7H8) is dissolved in 225 g of benzene.

What is the molality of toluene in the solution?
(Ans: 0.24 m)

Try yourself:
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION:
Molarity vs Molality
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: NORMALITY
What is Normality?
Normality of a solution is defined as the number of gram-
equivalents of solute per litre of solution.

1 gram-equivalents solute + solvent = 1 litre solution (1 Normal).

1 gram-equivalents H2SO4 (49 g) + solvent (water) = 1 litre H2SO4

solution (1 Normal).

𝑤 × 1000
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐸 × 𝑉 (𝑚𝑙)
Here,
w = amount of the solute,
E = gram-equivalent weight of the solute
V = volume of the solution in ml
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: NORMALITY

Problem: 98g of H2SO4 was dissolved in 1L water, what will be the

molarity, normality of this solution?
Ans: molarity 1M and normality 2N.
Try yourself.

Problem: 5.0 g of NaCl is dissolved in 1000.0 g of water. Density of

the resulting solution is 0.997 g/ml. Calculate the molality, molarity,
normality and mole fraction of NaCl in the solution.

(Ans: 0.0855 m, 0.0847 M, 0.0847 N and 1.536×10-3 respectively;

Essentials of physical chemistry by Bahl, Bahl and Tuli, page 533)

Try in your home. We will discuss in the next class. InshaAllah.

CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: MOLE FRACTION
What is Mole Fraction?
A simple solution is made of at least two components. One is solute
and another is solvent. Mole fraction of solute in a solution can be
defined as the ratio of the number of moles of solute to the total
number of moles of solute and solvent in the solution. Thus,
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

If n is the moles of solute and N is the moles of solvent, then

𝑛
The mole fraction of solute would be 𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = and
𝑛+𝑁
𝑁
Mole fraction of solvent, 𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑛+𝑁

Total mole fraction is unity, 𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 1

CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: MOLE FRACTION
Problem: Calculate the mole fraction of HCl in a solution of
hydrochloric acid containing 36 percent of HCl by weight.

(Ans 0.218; Essentials of physical chemistry by Bahl, Bahl and Tuli,

page 530)

Try yourself.
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: PERCENTAGE

1. Mass/Mass Percentage (w/w%): This is the mass of the solute

divided by the total mass of the solution, multiplied by 100.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑔)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = × 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑚𝐿)

Question: What do you mean by 15% (w/w) glucose solution?

Ans: 15% (w/w) glucose solution means 100 gram of this solution
contains 15 gram of glucose.
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: PERCENTAGE

2. Volume/Volume Percentage (v/v%): This is the volume of the

solute divided by the total volume of the solution, multiplied by 100.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑚𝐿)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = × 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑚𝐿)

Question: What do you mean by 70% (v/v) methanol in water?

Ans: 70% (v/v) methanol in water means 100 ml of this solution

contains 70 ml of methanol (and 30 ml of water).
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: PERCENTAGE

3. Mass/Volume Percentage (w/v%): This is the mass of the solute

divided by the volume of the solution, multiplied by 100.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑔)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = × 100
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑚𝐿)

Question: What do you mean by 20% (w/v) NaCl solution in water?

Ans: 20% (w/v) NaCl solution means 100 ml of this solution

contains 20 gram of NaCl salt.
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: PERCENTAGE

Problem: 2.45 g of NaCl is dissolved in 65 ml of a solution. What is

the percent of NaCl by weight in the solution?
(Ans 3.77)

Let's try together.

 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION: PPM

What is Parts Per Million (ppm)?

This is the number of parts of solute per million parts of solution.

ppm = mg of solute/liter of solution
Or, ppm = µg of solute/ml of solution

𝑚𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑝𝑝𝑚 =
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜇𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Or, 𝑝𝑝𝑚 =
𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Problem: Convert 0.001M NaOH to ppm.

Ans: 40 ppm.
Factors affecting the solubility of a substance

1. Nature of Solute and Solvent

2. Temperature

3. Pressure (for Gas-liquid system)

4. Surface area

5. Stirring or agitation

6. Common ion effect

7. pH of the solution
Factors affecting the solubility of a substance
1. Nature of Solute and Solvent:
The chemical nature of both the solute and solvent Like
plays a crucial role in dissolution of a solute. Dissolves
Like.
Polar substance is soluble in polar solvent and non-
polar substance is soluble in non-polar solvent.
For example, NaCl is soluble in water and CCl4 is
soluble in benzene.
Factors affecting the solubility of a substance
1. Nature of Solute and Solvent:

In case of gas liquid system, the gases which form compound with
the solvent or get ionized into the solution are more soluble.
For example, NH3 forms NH4OH with water and HCl gets ionized (as
H+ and Cl- ions) in water. For this reason, they are more soluble in
water.
𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝐻4 𝑂𝐻
𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 −

CO2 and SO2 gases are also soluble in water but less than ammonia
and HCl.

The solubility of O2, N2 and H2 gases in water is very less.

Factors affecting the solubility of a substance
1. Nature of Solute and Solvent:

It has been found that, the solubility of a gas in pure solvent is more
than that in electrolyte solution.

For example, the solubility of CO2 gas in 0.5 N KCl solution is 8.8% less
than that in pure water. Because, some water molecules are used to
hydrate the K+ ion and Cl- ion in KCl solution. These water molecules
do not take part in the dissolution of gas.

Pure 0.5 N KCl

water solution

CO2 more CO2 less

soluble soluble
Factors affecting the solubility of a substance
Temperature:
In case of solid-liquid system, generally solubility of a
solid in water increases with increase in
temperature. Because it is an endothermic process.
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 → 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Solid-Liquid
For example, the solubility of
Solubility

NaCl salt in water increases

with increases in
Temperature
temperature.
 Factors affecting the solubility of a substance

Gas-Liquid
Temperature:
For gases in liquids, solubility decreases with an
Solubility

increase in temperature.
Dissolution of gas in water is an exothermic process.
Gas + liquid ⇄ gas-liquid system (solution) + heat.
Temperature

So, increase of temperature decreases the solubility of the gas. Therefore,

in gas liquid system, the solubility of the gas decreases with increase in
temperature and vice versa.
If temperature increases the mobility of the gas molecules increases and
escape from the solution at a time.
System Temperature Solubility
Solid-Liquid Increase Increase
Gas-Liquid Increase Decrease
Factors affecting the solubility of a substance
Pressure (for Gases):
When we loosen or open the cork of a cold drinks (7 up, Pepsi, sprite etc.),
a turbulent flow of gas (CO2) appears. This seems that the gas was
pressurized in the liquid. If pressure is low the solubility of gas in liquid is
low.
For gases dissolved in liquids, solubility is influenced by pressure.
Factors affecting the solubility of a substance
Pressure (for Gases):
The solubility of a gas in a solvent depends on the pressure and
temperature. When a gas is enclosed over its saturated solution, the
following equilibrium exists.

If pressure is increased on the system, the equilibrium will move in the direction
which will reduce the pressure (as per Le Chatelier principle). The pressure can be
reduced by dissolving more gas in the solvent. Thus solubility or concentration of a
gas in a given solvent is increased with increase of pressure.
 Henry’s law (Solution of gas in liquid)
The relationship between pressure and solubility of a gas in a
particular solvent was investigated by William Henry (1803). He
have made a generalization which is known as Henry’s law.

Henry’s law states that, for a gas in contact with a solvent at

constant temperature, concentration of the gas that dissolves
in the solvent is directly proportional to the pressure of the
gas applied on the solvent surface.
 Henry’s law (Solution of gas in liquid)
Mathematically, Henry’s law may be expressed as
𝐶 ∝𝑃
Or 𝐶 = 𝑘 × 𝑃
Where,
P = pressure of the gas applied on the liquid surface
C = Concentration of the gas in the solution
K = proportionality constant known as Henry’s law constant.
If concentration of gas is plotted against its pressure applied on the
liquid surface, a straight line is obtained passing through the origin.
The slope of the line will be equal to the Henry’s law constant k.

If a gas liquid system give this type of plot, that

system follows the henry’s law. That means
Henry’s law is valid for the system.
 Limitations (Applicability) of Henry’s law

1. It applies closely to gases with nearly ideal behavior.

2. It is applicable at moderate temperature and pressure. Not so
high not so low temperature and pressure.
3. The solubility of the gas in the solution must be low. At higher
concentration it is not applicable.
4. The gas should not react with the solvent to form new species.
Thus ammonia and HCl react with water. They do not obey this
law. NH3 + H2O =NH4OH ⇄ NH4+ + OH- HCl + H2O = H3O+ + Cl-
5. The gas does not associate or dissociate in the solvent. It
should be in the same molecular form in the solution as in the
gaseous phase.
Limitations (Applicability) of Henry’s law
Related problems
Problem: The solubility of pure oxygen in water at 20oC and 1.00
atmospheric pressure is 1.38×10-3 mole/litre. Calculate the
concentration of oxygen at 20oC and partial pressure of 0.21
atmosphere. (Ans 2.9×10-4 mole/litre) BT-535p.

Let’s try together

Problem: The solubility of pure nitrogen in water at 20oC is 0.0150

g/litre when partial pressure of nitrogen is 580 torr. Calculate the
solubility of nitrogen at 20oC in water when its partial pressure is
800 torr. (Ans 0.0207 g/litre) BT-536p.

Let’s try together

 Way of Dissolution

Mechanism of Dissolution

How a solute get dissolved into a solvent to form

solution.
 Mechanism of Dissolution
The process of dissolution involves the breakdown of solute particles
and their integration into the solvent to form a homogeneous mixture,
often referred to as a solution.

The mechanism of dissolution depends on the nature of the solute and

solvent and is influenced by factors like temperature, pressure, and
molecular interactions.
 Dissolving of NaCl in water
A crystal solid is dissolved in water in two steps.
Step 1 is endothermic and the step 2 is exothermic process.
The overall process of dissolution would be either exothermic or
endothermic depending on these two.

Step 1 MX (s) + Energy required (lattice energy) = M+ + X- (isolated gaseous ions)

Step 2 M+ + x.solvent = [M(solvent)x]+ + energy released (solvation energy)
X- + y.solvent = [X(solvent)y]- + energy released (solvation energy)

Step 1 is endothermic and the step 2 is exothermic process.

The overall process of dissolution would be either exothermic
or endothermic depending on these two.

𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑵𝒂+ (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑪𝒍− (𝒂𝒒)

Any question
please….
 Henry’s law (Solution of gas in liquid)
The relationship between pressure and solubility of a gas in a particular
solvent was investigated by William Henry (1803). He have a generalization
which is known as Henry’s law.
It states that, for a gas in contact with a solvent at constant temperature,
concentration of the gas that dissolves in the solvent is directly proportional
to the pressure of the gas applied on the solvent surface.
Factors affecting the solubility of a substance
4. Surface Area:
Increasing the surface area of a solid solute can enhance its
solubility. This is particularly relevant for finely powdered or
crushed solutes, as it provides more contact points for interaction
with the solvent.

5. Stirring or Agitation:
Stirring or agitating a solution helps in speeding up the dissolution
process by increasing the contact between the solute and solvent.
This is especially important for solid solutes.

6. Chemical Interactions:
Chemical interactions between the solute and solvent molecules can
affect solubility. For example, the formation of hydrogen bonds or
other attractive forces can enhance solubility.
Factors affecting the solubility of a substance

7. Common Ion Effect:

The presence of common ions can influence the solubility
of a substance. If a solution already contains an ion that is
part of the solute, it can reduce the solubility of that solute.

8. pH of the Solution:
For substances that can undergo ionization or dissociation,
the pH of the solution can affect solubility. Some substances
are more soluble under acidic or basic conditions.

9. Complex Formation:
Some solutes can form complexes with solvent molecules
or other solutes, affecting their overall solubility.