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ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
SECTION A: CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY
The following is a list of terms is used in the reproductive organs
TERM DEFINITION
Cervix A firm tube-like structure found between the uterus and the vagina
Ejaculation Release of semen into the vagina during copulation/mating
Epididymis A single, narrow, coiled tube that transports sperm from testes to
the vas deferens
Fallopian tubes/ A pair of coiled tubes that extend from the ovaries to the uterus
oviducts
Gametogenesis Formation of gametes
 Oogenesis/ovigenesis Formation of a mature ovum from a primary oocyte
 Spermatogenesis Formation of spermatozoa in the testes
Ovary Primary sex organ of a female
Ovum Female gamete
Penis A male organ of copulation
Primary reproductive Produce gametes or sperm/ova,
organs
Prostate gland A gland that lies in the form of a ring around the urethra in males
Reproduction Production of offspring
Scrotum A sac that houses and protects the testes
Secondary reproductive The duct system transporting the gametes and associated organs
organs
Semen A mixture of sperm & fluids from the seminal vescicle, prostate
gland & Cowper’s gland
Sperm Male gamete
Testis Primary sex organ of a male animal
Testosterone A male hormone responsible for male characteristics
Lack of libido The bull does not show an interest in cows
Uterus An organ where a developing embryo is implanted
Vagina A female mating organ/ a birth canal
Vulva External opening of the vagina
Anoestrus A sexually mature, non-pregnant cow shows no signs of oestrus

Oestrogen A female hormone responsible for onset of behavioural oestrus

Oestrus A period when a female is receptive of a male & allows mating
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Oestrus cycle A 21 day period which a follicle develops into a mature ovum
Oocyte An immature ovum that into a follicle
Ovulation A release of a ripe ovum from an ovary
Prolactin A female hormone responsible for production of milk
Superovulation Treating a female with hormones in order to produce many ova at
the same time
Synchronisation of A treatment of a large number of animals with hormones so that
oestrus
they all reach oestrus at the same period
Artificial Insemination The process whereby sperm is placed into a female’s uterus/ cervix
(AI)
by artificial means rather than natural mating
Embryonic Removal of a fertilised ovum from the uterus of a superior cow &
transfer/transplant
transferring it to the uterus of the inferior cow
Embryo A developing animal formed from a fertilised ovum
Nuclear transfer/ cloning A process that produces an identical copy of biological material
Superovulation Treating a female with hormones in order to produce many ova at
the same time
Synchronisation of A treatment of a large number of animals with hormones so that
oestrus
they all reach oestrus at the same period
Pregnancy Begins with a fertlised ovum and ends with birth
Gestation The time from fertlilizationto birth,during which the foetus develops
inside the
mother
Fertlization The joining of the nucleus of a male and female gamete, to form a
zygote
Monozygotic twins one of a pair of twins who develop from a single fertilized ovum and
therefore
have the same genotype, are of the same sex, and usually
resemble each
other closely.
Dizygotic twins two offspring born of the same pregnancy and developed from two
ova that
were released from the ovary simultaneouslyand fertilized at the sa
me time
Freemartin The result of dizygotic twins where in the placenta male hormones
affect
the female calf, having an influence on the expression of female
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characteristics
Abortion The termination of pregnancy before the foetus is viable:
Parturition The end of pregnancy - birth
Dystocia Condition of prolinged and difficult partuirition, due to various
reasons
Retention Keeping back ( the placenta) after birth
Placenta a flattened circular organ in the uterus of pregnant mammals,
nourishing and
maintaining the fetus through the umbilical cord.
Lactation is the period during which a female mammal produces milk to feed
their offspring
Colostrum The milk that is being produced for the first few days after birth
For a species to thrive, it must be able to reproduce itself. Producing offspring requires the
proper functioning of both the male and female reproductive systems, each of which consists
of several parts that have specific purposes in the reproductive system.
MALE AND THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
The male reproductive organs consist out of two parts namely primary reproductive organs
and secondary reproductive systems.
The primary organs consists of the testis- is responsible for the production of the sperm and
the secretion of testosterone, and the storage of the semen.
Secondary reproductive organs- contains of the Vesicular glands, Vas differens, Prostate,
Cowpers gland and the Penis.
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYASTEM

Cervix: Prevents
microbial contamination
of the uterus. Reservoir
Vulva: for semen. Site of
Opening of the semen deposit during
vagina natural mating

Uterus: Retains and

nourishes the embryo
and the foetus

Vagina: Sperm Oviduct: Gamete

transport (Sperms &
gets deposited
Ova) & Site of
into the vagina.
fertilization.
The birth canal
during
Ovaries: Produce and
parturition
release eggs (Ovulation)

NOV 2017
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Answer series
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SEPT 2018

Answer series
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SEPT 2019
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Gametogenesis: It is the process whereby gametes (sperm cell and egg cell) are formed. It is
divided into two.
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1. Spermatogenesis: Formation of spermatozoa in the testes

Structure of mature sperm cell

Feb/March 2018

2.Oogenesis/Ovigenesis: Formation of a mature ovum from a primary oocyte

June 2018

Oestrus and oestrus cycle

 A period when a non-pregnant female is receptive of a male and allows mating.
 A 21 day cycle from the beginning of one oestrus (heat) to the next, including hormonal
and structural changes in the female body with four (4) stages.
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FOUR STAGES OF THE OESTRUS CYCLE

PRO-OESTRUS OESTRUS MET OESTRUS DI-OESTRUS
 Last for  Cow is on  Under the  High levels
about 2 to 3 heat and influence of of
days. receptive to LH, ruptured progesterone
 Pituitary bull and follicle forms are secreted
gland allows corpus by the
secretes mating. luteum. corpus
Follicle  Oestrogen  Corpus luteum.
stimulating stimulates luteum  If fertilization
hormone and the secretion secretes takes place,
stimulates of Luteinising progesterone. progesterone
the hormone inhibits FSH.
development (LH) by the  If fertilization
of follicles. pituitary did not take
 Oestrogen is gland place,
secreted by  Ovulation progesterone
the takes place. levels
developing decrease.
follicles.

Summary of the hormones involved in the oestrus cycle.

Hormones Functions
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)  Stimulates follicles to grow
 Releases oestrogen
Lutenising hormone (LH)  Ovulation
 Formation of corpus luteum
Oestrogen  Secondary sex characteristics
 Mating behaviour
Progesterone  Prepares the uterus to receive the
fertilized egg
 Maintains preganancy

Feb/March 2017
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Nov 2018

Sept 2018
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Factors causing sterility and infertility in cows and bulls

Factors causing infertility and sterility in Factors causing infertility sterility in cows
bulls
Infertility causing factors. Infertility causing factors.
 Immaturity  Retained placenta
 Hypoplasia  Metritis (infection of the uterus)
 Cryptorchidism  Ovulatory failure
Sterility causing factors.  Anoestrus
 Castration  Repeat breeder
 Deformed reproductive organs  Abortions
 Injuries Sterility causing factors.
 Lack of libido  Diseases
 diseases  Hypoplasia

Oestrus in cows is identified by the following signs

Behaviour of other cows

Behaviour of cow in heat. Visible changes

 The cow becomes  Other cows  High

restless mount the cow amount of
 Mounts other cows in heat oestrogen
 The cow goes to secreted
the bull and allows results in
serving the visible
signs:
 Lips of
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Methods to identify cows on oestrus (heat)

Chin-ball marker The ‘Kamar Tail-chalking Pedometer
heatmount detector’
 Device placed  Device that is  The chalk is  Device that is
underneath the glued to the rubbed on the strapped
chin of an rump of the tail tail head of around a cows
animal of cows cows to be heat lower leg to
expected to suspected to be detected. detect and
mount cows on on heat in the record the
heat. near future. motion such as
walking.

Mating
Definition: is the natural process whereby sperm gets deposited in the uterus of a female
animal by the male animal through the process of copulation.
The male sexual display
 The bull follows the cow on oestrus
closely, licking and smelling her
external genitalia.

 The bull will extend his neck and curl

his upper lip. This is called the
Flehmen response.

 Cows on oestrus will frequently seek

the dominant male.
 Dominant male prevent inferior
males from copulating.
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STAGES OF MATING

The bull is attracted to a cow on heat by her behaviour and shows an interest in
her.
1.COU He may sniff her hindquarters and curl his lip in a flehmen reaction. He may also
RTSHI rest his head on her rump.
P

The cow will stand still if she is ready to be mated and allow the bull to jump.
2. The bull is able to place the penis near to the vulva in this position.
MOU
NTING

3. The male animal will use his penis to penentrate the female animals vagina.
COPU
LATIO
N

The male animal will release semen into the front part of the vagina, close to the
4. cervix
EJACU
LATIO
N

5. the bull gets off the back of the cow soon after ejaculation.
DISM
OUNT
ING
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Artificial insemination
Main requirements for successful artificial insemination
 the cow must be on oestrus.
 the semen must be healthy.
 the inseminator must be familiar with the technique.
Requirements and equipment for successful artificial insemination
 a person trained in artificial insemination
 correct observation of heat
 a crush where the cow can stand
 a container of liquid nitrogen in which the semen is kept
 a pistolette
 an artificial insemination glove
 a thermometer
Basic requirements for semen collection
 artificial vagina
 electro-ejaculation
The following are the basic requirements for the storage of semen collected.
 If the semen is stored for short period of time, it can be stored at 5 o C
 If the semen is stored for a longer time, it is placed in straws and frozen in liquid
nitrogen at -196 o C.
 When required, it is thawed.
Characteristics of a good quality semen
 It is opaque, milky white and sticky
 Greyish semen indicates the presence of infection.
 Reddish semen indicates the presence of fresh blood.
 Dark brown semen indicates the presence of old blood.
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September 2018
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Embryo transplant/transfer (ET)

Removal of a fertilised ovum from the uterus of a superior cow & transferring it to the uterus of
the inferior cow

Embryo transfer
Artificial Embryo flushing
Super-ovulation insemination Synchronised (of quality
(semen from (of donor cow ovulation embryos from
(in donor
donor bull to uterus with donor cow into
superior cow) (recipient cows)
donor cow) saline solution) surrogate/
recipient cow)

Nuclear transfere/cloning
A alboratory process that produces a genetically identical copy of the original animal/cell/tissue
by trasferring the nucleus of a somatic cell into an enucleated egg cell.
The two types of cloning are:
1. reproductive cloning, where new organism is created.
2. therapeutic cloning, where an organ or tussue is cloned from a cell in the patient, and
returned to the patient after it has been cloned and grown in the laboratory.
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The cloning process

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September 2020

Fertilisation and pragnancy

Fertilisation: process where the nucleus of a haploid ovum (n) fuses with the nucleus of a
haploid sperm cell (n) to form a diploid zygote (2n).

Gametes (n+n) Blastocyst Embryo Foetus (growth

Zygote (2n) Morula (ball of
male +female (hallow ball of (differentiated and
diploid cells)
sex cells cells) tissues) development)

Formation of multiple births

Monozygotic twins (identical)  Develop from one ovum that is
fertilised to form a zygote, which then
splits spontaneously into two identical
embroys.
Diyzygotic tiwns (fraternal)  Develop from two different ova
released during ovulation that are
fertilised by two different
spermatozoa.
Freematinism  Is a female calf that develops in the
same uterus as a normal twin male
calf.
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Pregnancy/ gestation
Period from implantation of developing embryo until birth/parturition of foetus.
Pregnancy is divided into three stages: ovum stage, embryonic stage and foetal stage

Embryonic stage
Ovum stage
(from formation of the Foetal stage
(from fertilization to
embryo to fully developed (from formation of foetus
implantation)
embryo)

September 2019
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November 2020

During the embryonic stage, tissues, organs and systems begin to develop.
Membrane layers and their functions.
Name of the membrane Function(s)
1. chorion (embryonic bag)  Outermost embryonic membrane.
 It forms outgrowths into the
endometrium to obtain nutrients for
the embryo and fuses with the
allantois to form the placenta
2. amnion  Innermost embryonic membrane.
 It forms the amniotic sac filled with
amniotic fluid that act as a shock
absorber to protect the embryo
3. allantois  Embryonic membrane that collects
waste products, fuses with chorion to
form placenta.
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November 2019
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Feb/March 2017

Abortion
The termination of pregnancy before the end of the normal gestation period, where a foetus of
recognisable size is expelled, before it is viable.
Causes of abortion.
 Abnormalities
 Physical injury
 Genetic conditions
 Infection
 Death of embryo/foetus
 Mummification
 Maceration
 Twining
Birth/ Parturition
Process at the end of gestation that expels the foetus from the uterus through muscular
contractions controlled by hormones.
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Sings that a cow is about to give birth

Behavioural signs Physical signs
 Cow stops eating and walks  Swollen udder and vulva
around  Stringy mucous discharge
 Make bellowing noise  Dilated cervix
 Isolate herself from other animals  Frequent urination

Stages of normal parturition

The parturition process has three distinct stages:
1st Stage 2nd Stage 3rd Stage
Preparatory stage (0-6 Delivery stage/Ejection stage Expulsion of the placenta
hours) (1-2 hours) (afterbirth) (8-12 hours after
calving

 Cervix, vagina and  Front legs, nose and  Uterus contracts

vulva dilate head first enter the rapidly
 Pelvic ligaments relax vagina.  Placenta separates
 Hormones initiate  Calf is expelled via the from the uterine wall
uterine contractions birth canal and  Shedding of placenta
and cause regression breaths and foetal membranes
of corpus luteum. independently. via cervix and vagina.
 Low levels of  Afterbirth expelled
progesterone are from vulva.
secreted, and high
levels of oestrogen
are secreted.
 Allantoic fluid is
released to lubricate
birth canal
November 2016
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Conditions that may interfere with the normal parturition process

Dystocia: condition of prolonged and difficult parturition/ difficult parturition and inability to
deliver without intervention due to various factors.
Factors causing dystocia
 Large foetus  Deformities
 Uterus torsion  Incorrect foetal position
 Uterine inertia  Weak labour
 Hormone imbalance
June 2017

Milk production and lactation

Lactation: period of milk production (305 days) which commences after parturition to nourish
the calf due to hormone stimulation (prolactin).

Milk pathway
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Alveolus
(milk produced by secretory cells into small ducts)

Milk ducts
(transport milk from smaller ducts into gland cistern)

Gland cistern
(cavity that fills with milk in milk letdown)

Teat cistern
(cavity that fills constantly with milk during suckling)

Teat canal (expels milk to the exterior during

sulcking)

Milk ejection/milk letdown

Involuntary release of milk from the alveoli of the teat stimulated by sucking action or presence
of calf which triggers release of oxytocin from the pituitary gland.
November 2016
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June 2019