CE 331

Environmental Engineering I

Topic: Water Treatment Method-Filtration

Maj Farzana Faiza

Instr Cls ‘B’
Department of Civil Engineering, MIST
 Filtration
• Filtration is a process of water
purification in which water is
allowed to pass through a bed of
filtering media, usually sand and
gravel.

• The filter media are very efficient

in retaining finer and colloidal
particles including some bacteria
and viruses. FILTRATION: The water passes through filters, some
made of layers of sand, and charcoal that help remove
smaller particles.
 Filtration
Theories of filtration:
Filtration of raw water through a bed of sand removes bacteria, finely divided
suspended and colloidal matters by a combination of different processes.

These phenomena are explained on the basis of following four actions:

• mechanical staining
• sedimentation and adsorption
• microbial action
• electrostatic attraction.
Mechanical straining:
The particles too large to pass through the interstices between the sand
grains are retained by mechanical straining. It takes place exclusively in the
top layer of the filter media. The accumulated material in the top layer of the
bed increases the straining efficiency but it also increases the resistance
against the downward flow of water. This process cannot remove bacteria and
colloidal matter too small to be strained out.
Sedimentation and adsorption:
The voids between sand grains of filter act more or less like small
sedimentation tanks. The particles of impurities, arrested in these voids,
adhere to particles of sand grains, mainly for the following two reasons:

1. Due to the presence of a gelatinous film or coating developed on sand

grains by previously caught bacteria and colloidal matter and

2. Due to the physical attraction between the two particles of matter.

Microbial action:
When bacteria are caught in the voids of sand grains, a zoological film is
formed around the sand grains. The film contains large colonies of living
bacteria.

A part of the organic material present in raw water is oxidized for energy
requirements and another part is transformed into cell materials for
microbial growth.

The layer of microbial film around the sand grains is called 'Schmutzdecke',
and is very prominent in the top layer of slow sand filters.
Electrolytic changes:
The action of filter is also explained by the ionic theory.
It states that when two substances with opposite electric charges are
brought into contact with each other, the electric charges are
neutralized and in doing so, new chemical substances are formed.
It is observed that some of the sand grains of filter are charged with
electricity of some polarity. Hence, when particles of suspended and
dissolved matter containing electricity of opposite polarity come into
contact with sand grains, they neutralize each other and it ultimately
results in the alteration of chemical characteristics of water.
After some interval of time, the electrical power of sand grains gets
exhausted. At that time, it becomes necessary to clean the filter and
restore it with its property.
 Filtration
Filter sand

✓free from clay, loam, vegetable matter, organic impurities, etc.

✓uniform in nature and size.
The filter sand is classified on the basis of its effective size and uniformity
coefficient.
The effective size of sand indicates the size of sieve in mm through which ten
per cent of the sample by weight will pass.
The uniformity coefficient of sand is the ratio of sieve size in mm through
which 60 per cent of the sample of sand by weight will pass to the effective
size of sand. For instance, suppose the effective size of sand is 0.50 mm. If 60
percent of sand from the same sample passes through 0.60 mm sieve, the
uniformity coefficient will be 0.60 / 0.50 = 1.20
 Filtration
Filter sand

Instead of sand, sometimes anthrafilt is used. It is made from

anthracite which is a stone-coal that burns nearly without flame or
smoke. It almost entirely consists of carbon. This material is found
to possess many advantages such as low cost in handling, high rate
of filtration, durability, better efficiency, etc.
But as sand is readily available, the usual practice is to recommend
bed of sand for filters.
 Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
In slow sand filtration, water is allowed to pass through a bed of
fine sand which retains most of the impurities present in water.
It is suitable for the development of a surface water-based water
supply system in developing countries.

The effluent of a well designed, properly operated and well

maintained slow sand filter should be clear and virtually free from
all pathogenic micro-organisms, in particular the bacteria, viruses,
protozoa and helminthes responsible for spreading of water-related
diseases.
 Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
Slow sand filtration does not require any pre-treatment of water if
the turbidity of raw water is not very high.
Slow sand filters do not require complex mechanical and electrical
equipment or coagulating chemicals commonly required for most
water treatment processes.
The skills for operation and maintenance can be easily acquired by
training.
Cleaning may call for unskilled labor which is available in developing
countries.
 Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
• Elements of a slow sand filter
(A) Filter Box
1. Supernatant or raw water
2. Sand bed or filter bed (on a
support of gravel)
3. Under – drainage system
(B) A system of filter control valves
 Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
Filter Box elements
1. Supernatant Water
• Depth: 1 - 1.5meters
• Provides a constant head of water which
overcomes the resistance of the filter bed
• Provides waiting period of some hours (3
to 12 hours depending upon the filtration
velocity)
• partial purification by sedimentation,
oxidation and particle agglomeration
• level is always kept constant
 Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
Filter Box elements
2. Sand bed supported by gravel
• Thickness: 1 meter
• The sand grains round shaped and diameter of 0.2 to 0.3 mm (Free of
clay and organic matter)
• Effective size : 0.2-0.4 mm, uniformity coefficient below 3.
• Supported by a layer of graded gravel (30 – 40 cm deep)
• Water percolates though the sand bed very slowly , (≥two hours) and
gets filtered by Mechanical straining, Sedimentation, Adsorption and
Bacterial action
• The rate of filtration: 0.1 - 0.4 m3/ hour/ m2 of sand bed surface
 Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
Vital Layer (within the sand bed of slow sand filter):
• When the filter is newly laid, it acts merely as a mechanical strainer, it is not
‘biological’ at this time
• But soon, the surface of the sand bed gets covered with a slimy growth known as
“Schmutzdecke”
• This is a zoological layer or biological layer, known as ‘vital layer’
• This slimy and gelatinous layer consists of algae, plankton, diatoms and bacteria
• The formation of this layer is known as‘ripening’ of the filter which may take
several days to form fully (2 – 3 cm into the top portion of the sand bed)
The vital layer:
– Removes organic matter
– Holds back bacteria and
• Hence, until the vital layer is fully formed, the first few days filtrate is usually run
to waste
 Slow Sand Filter (SSF)

The raw water is let in to the filter room slowly from the pipe on the right. The water will pass
through the sand layers down to the bottom of this room. The Schmutzdecke layer can be
observed in this picture.
 Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
Filter Box elements
3. Under-drain system
• Depth: 0.15 m
• At the bottom of the filter bed
• Porous pipes: Outlet for filtered water
as well as support to the filter media
above
4. Filter Control Valve
• To regulate the flow of water in and
out from the filter box
 Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
Filter Cleaning
When the bed resistance increases to such an
extent that the regulating valve has to be kept
fully open, filter bed needs to be cleaned.

Cleaning is done by –
- Draining of supernatant water
- Scrapping of the top portion of the sand bed Removal of vital layer
to a depth of 1-2 cm
- After 20-30 scrapings, new bed (filter) is
required to be constructed
 Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
Advantages
• Simple to construct
• Cost of construction is cheaper than that of rapid sand filters
• Does not need chemical coagulation of water prior to filtering unlike
rapid sand filters, only sedimentation is sufficient
• Does not need highly skilled operators
• Slow sand filter have been shown to reduce total bacterial counts by
99.99% and E.coli count by 99.90%
 Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
Disadvantages
• Occupies large area
• Slow rate of filtration
• Needs regular scraping of sand bed for cleaning
• Initial cost is low but maintenance cost is much more than rapid
sand filter
 Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
➢In rapid sand filtration, the filtration rate is higher as compared to SSF due to
the use of larger and relatively uniform size sand particles as filter medium.

➢The filter beds usually include a coarse sand layer about 1 m thick laid on top
with a layer of graded gravel.

➢The gravel is underlaid by an under drainage system.

➢Rapid sand filter is a technique common in developed countries for treating

large quantities of drinking water.
 Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
The major characteristics of RSF are as follows:

• high filtration rate about 5-15 m3/ hour/ m2

• high removal of turbidity and colour ( 80-85%) and bacteria (85-95%)
• cleaning of filter bed by backwashing
• pre-treatment such as coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation are
required
• suitable for all types of turbid and coloured water
• relatively high cost of operation and maintenance
 Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
Steps in purification of water using rapid sand filter
1. Coagulation
2. Rapid mixing
3. Flocculation
4. Sedimentation and THEN
5. Filtration: using the rapid sand filter
 Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
• Supernatant water - 1 to 1.5 m
• Sand is the filtering medium
– Size of the sand grains 0.4 – 0.7 mm
– Each unit of filter has a surface of about 80 – 90 sq m (900 sq feet)
– Depth of the bed is usually about 1 meter
• Below the sand bed is a layer of graded gravel 60-90 cm deep
– The gravel supports the sand bed and
– Permits the filtered water to move freely towards the under – drains
• The under- drains at the bottom of the filter beds collect the filtered water
• Filtration rate - 5-15 m3 / m2/ hr
 Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
Cleaning and Maintenance
As filtration proceeds, the suspended impurities and bacteria clog
the filters and the filters soon become dirty and begin to lose their
efficiency

When the ‘loss of head’ approaches 7 – 8 feet, filtration is stopped

and the filters are subjected to a washing process called
‘backwashing’.
Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
 Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
Backwashing:
– Required daily or weekly depending upon the ‘loss of head’
– Washing is accomplished by reversing the flow of water through the
sand bed
– Backwashing dislodges the impurities and cleans up the sand bed
– The washing is stopped when clear sand is visible and the wash water
is sufficiently clear
– The whole process takes about 15 minutes
– In some rapid sand filter, compressed air is used as a part of the
backwashing process
 Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
Advantages of Rapid Sand Filter

– The filter beds occupy less space

– Filtration is rapid (40 – 50 times faster than slow sand filter)

– Washing of the filter is easier

 Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
Disadvantages of Rapid Sand Filter

– Relatively high skill operation

– Costly

– Removes less bacteria (as compared to SSF)

Comparison of Slow Sand Filter and Rapid Sand Filter

Ser Item Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter

1 Pre treatment Effluent from plain sedimentation Coagulation, flocculation and

requirement tank or raw water without any sedimentation is must
treatment.
2 Base material The gravel base supports the sand. The gravel base supports the sand
It varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and also distributes the wash
and 30 to 75 cm in depth. water uniformly on the surface
sand. It varies from 3 to 40 mm in
size and 60 to 90 cm in depth.
Comparison of Slow Sand Filter and Rapid Sand Filter
Ser Item Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter

3 Filter sand The effective size of filter sand ranges The effective size of filter sand
between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and uniformity ranges between 0.4 to 0.7 mm
coefficient between 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0 and uniformity coefficient
The grain size distribution is generally between 1.2 to 1.8
uniform throughout the depth of filter The sand is laid in layers with
media, except that top 10 to 15 cm smallest grain size at the top
may be laid of finer variety. and coarsest grain size at the
bottom.
4 Under Laid in order to receive filtered water. Laid in order to receive filtered
drainage water and also to pass water for
system backwashing at a very high rate.
Comparison of Slow Sand Filter and Rapid Sand Filter
Ser Item Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter

5 Area The area varying from 100 to 2000 The area varying from 10 to
required sqm or more. 40 sqm.

6 Depreciation Relatively low Relatively high

cost
7 Ease in Simple Complicated, as under
construction drainage is to properly
designed.
8 Rate of Small large
filtration
Comparison of Slow Sand Filter and Rapid Sand Filter
Ser Item Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter

9 Efficiency Very efficient in removing bacteria less efficient in removing

(98-99%) bacteria (80-90%)

10 Method of Scrapping and removing top 1.5 to 3 Agitating the sand grains and
cleaning cm thick layer. backwashing with or without
compressed air
11 Quantity of 0.2 to 0.6 % of total water filtered 2 to 5 % of total water filtered
wash water
required
12 Period of 1 to 3 months 24 to 48 hrs
cleaning