FILTRATION:

(a) Introduction
Screening and sedimentation removes a large percentage of the SS and organic matter. However,
the resultant will not be pure. Filtration helps in removing colour, odour, turbidity and pathogenic
bacteria from water.
The types of filters in use are;
(a) Slow sand filter,
(b) Rapid sand filter,
(c) Pressure filter.

(b) Theory of Filtration:

Filters purify water under four different processes (or mechanics of filtration).
(i) Mechanical straining – Suspended impurities bigger than the void in sand layers of the filter
cannot pass through the voids.
(ii) Flocculation and sedimentation – Voids between sand bed act as small settling basins. Very
small particles of suspended matter, colloidal particles and some bacteria settle in these small
settling basins and adhere to the sand particles due to the physical attraction between two
particles of matter and because of the presence of gelatinous coating formed on the sand grains,
which further attract finer materials.
(iii) Biological action – Suspended impurities contain some portions of organic impurities such as
algae, planktons e.t.c. which are food for various types of microorganisms. The organisms utilise
such organic impurities and convert them into harmless compounds by the process of biological
metabolism. The harmless compounds so formed, generally form a layer at the top which is
called schmutzdecke or dirty skin. This layer further helps in absorbing and straining out
impurities.
(iv) Electrolytic action – The sand grains and impurities in water often carry electrical charges of
opposite nature. When they come into contact with each other, they neutralize each other, hence
changing the character of water and making it purer. After a certain interval, the electrical
charges of sand grains get exhausted and have to be restored by cleaning the filter.

(c) Filter Materials:

(i) Sand – either fine or coarse. It should be obtained from rocks such as quartzite and should
contain the following properties;
- Be free of dirt and other impurities
- Be uniform in nature and size.
- Be hard and resistant
- Be such that it doesn’t loose more than 5% of its weight after being placed in
hydrochloric acid for 24 hours.
D60
Uniformity coefficient = 1.30 to 1.75
D10
(ii) Gravel – This is used below the sand and should be hard, durable, free from impurities,
properly rounded and of density of about 1600kg/m3
NOTE: Other materials may also be used instead of sand and gravel.

1
(d) Slow Sand Filters:
(i) Construction – A typical section is as shown in Fig.1 and the various parts are discussed
below.

HL HL=head loss
0.9m of filter head

Outlet chamber
Inlet
SAND 0.9m Outlet pipe

To supply
reservoir

Concrete Underdrain
base 0.3m-0.6m gravel in 3 layers
Sand in 2 layers:Fine sand at top, coarse sand below

Fig 1: Typical Section of a Slow Sand Filter

Enclosure base – it consists of an open water tight rectangular tank. Bed slope is kept at
about 1 in 100 towards the central drain. The depth of the tank may vary from 2.5 to
3.5m. The plan area may vary from 100 to 2000m2 or more.

Filter media – This consists of sand layers about 0.90 – 1.10 m in depth, placed over a
gravel support. Effective size (D10) of the sand varies from 0.2 to 0.4mm and uniformity
coefficient ( D 60 D10 ) varies from 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0. The top 150mm of the sand is generally
kept of finer variety than that of the rest, which is generally kept uniform in grain size.

Base material – Gravel is used as the base material and supports the sand. It consists of
0.30 – 0.75m thickness, and of different sizes, placed in layers. Generally, three to four
layers each 0.15 – 0.20m depth are used. The size of gravel in the bottom layer is
generally kept at 40 to 65mm; in the intermediate layers as varying between 20 to 40mm
and 6mm to 20mm (when two intermediate layers are used) and in the top most layer as 3
to 6mm.

Under-drainage system – The gravel support is laid on the top of an under – drainage
system which consists of a central drain and lateral drains as shown in Fig. 2. The laterals
are open jointed pipe drains or some kind of porous drains placed 3 to 5m apart on the
bottom floor and sloping towards a main covered central drain. The laterals collect the
filtered water and then discharge it into the main drain, which directs the water to the
filtered water well.

Inlet and outlet arrangements – An inlet chamber is constructed for admitting the
effluent from the plain sedimentation tank without disturbing the sand layers of the filter
and to distribute it uniformly over the filter bed. A filtered water well is also constructed
on the outlet side in order to collect the filtered water coming out from the main water
underdrain.

Other appurtenances:
- A vertical air pipe passing trough layer of sand which helps in proper functioning of
the filtering layers.

2
 - Meter – to measure the flow
- Gauge – to measure the loss of head.

B
Inlet Outlet
chamber well

A A

Open jointed Main covered Laterals stopped about

lateral drains drain 0.5 to 0.6m from the walls

Fig 2: Typical Under drainage system of a Slow Sand Filter

Perforated concrete
blocks
Perforated Open joint
underdrain

Cement Longitudinal
Open joint Cement
concrete bed concrete underdrain
underdrain
Section A-A Section B-B

(ii) Operations and Cleaning of slow sand filters:

Water enters through the filter media and comes out as the filtered water, and collects into the
filtered water well. Loss of head is limited to a maximum value of 0.7 to 1.2m. When this
limiting value, which is kept roughly as 0.7 to 0.8 times the depth of the filter sand, is
reached, the filter must be put out of service and cleaned.

Cleaning of the filter is done by scrapping and removing 15 to 30mm of top sand layer. The
top surface is finally raked, roughened, cleaned and washed with good water. The amount of
wash water used is approximately 0.2 to 0.6% of the total water filtered. Subsequent cleanings
may be carried out until the sand depth is about 0.4 m, and then more sand is added. After
each cleaning, filtering to waste is done for about 24 to 36 hours until formation of a film
(schmutzdecke) takes place.
(iii) Rate of filtration: This is small and usually ranges between 100 and 200 l/hr/m2 of filter area.
(iv) Efficiency and performance of slow sand filters:
- Are highly efficient in removing bacteria and other suspended solids from raw water.

3
 - They will also remove odours and tastes, especially those due to organic impurities, such as
algae and planktons.
(v) Uses: These are best suited for smaller plants and for purifying water with low colours, low
turbidities and low bacterial contents. They require huge land areas on account of their low rates of
filtration.
EXAMPLE 1 : Design six slow sand filter beds given the following data:
- Population served = 50,000 persons
- Average per capita demand = 150l/head/day
- Rate of filtration = 180l/hr/m2
- Length of each bed = 2 × the breath.
- Maximum demand = 1.8 times the average daily demand.
- One unit out of six is kept as stand-by

Solution:
Average daily demand = 50, 000 ×150 = 7.5 ×106 l / d
6 6
Maximum daily demand = 1.8 × 7.5 ×10 = 13.5 ×10 l / d
2
Rate of filtration per day = 180 × 24 l / m / d
Total surface area of filters required
maximum daily demand
=
rate of filtration per day
13.5 ×106
= = 3125m2
180 × 24
Now 6 units are to be use used. Out of them, one is to be kept as stand – by, and hence, only 5 units
should provide the necessary area of filters required.
1
∴ Area of each filter = × 3125m2 = 625m2
5
If L is the length and B is the breadth of each unit, then
L = 2B
∴ 2B × B = 625
B = 17.7 say 18m
and L = 2 B = 2 ×18 = 36m
Hence, use 6 filter units with one as stand-by, each unit of size 36m×18m,arranged in series with 3
units on either side.

(e) RAPID SAND FILTERS:

These are used for large municipal water supplies.
(i) Construction:
A typical section is as shown in Fig.3. Description of the various parts is as follows:

Enclosure tank:
This consists of an open water tight rectangular tank, whose depth varies from 2.5 to 3.5m. The
area of the filter is generally limited to about 10 to 80m2 per unit in order to achieve uniform
distribution of water.
The number of filter units at a plant may be roughly estimated by the equation developed by
Morrell and Wallace, of the form

4
 N = 1.22 Q
where N = Number of filter units
Q = Plant capacity in 106 litres / day
There should be at least two filter units in any plant.

Wash water storage

tank
Air compressor unit
Water level while filtering
Head loss indicator

Water from Water level while washing

coagulation
sedimentation
basin 1 1.2m
Inlet Wash water troughs
chamber
Head loss
indicator SAND 0.75m
2
5

3 Main Laterals Strainer GRAVEL

drain s in layers
4

Filtered water to disinfection unit

Fig. 3: Rapid Sand Filter Details

Laterals about 100 mm φ

0.15 to
0.2m
Central manifold
pipe about 0.4m φ

Fig. 4: Plan of Manifold and lateral

under drainage

Filter media:
This consists of sand layers, about 0.6 to 0.9m in depth and placed over a gravel support. Effective
size (D10) of the sand varies from 0.35 to 0.55mm and the uniformity coefficient D 60 D10 generally
ranges between 1.3 to 1.7. Sand is laid in layers with the finer sand at the top.

Base material:

5
 The base material consists of 0.6 to 0.9 m thick gravel of different sizes, placed in layers.
Generally five to six layers, each of 0.10 to 0.15m in depth are used. The coarse gravel (about 40mm
in size) is used in the bottom – most layer and the finest gravel (about 3mm in size) is used in the top –
most layer.
The size of gravel in the bottom – most layer is thus generally kept between 20 and 40mm; in the
intermediate layers between 12 to 20mm, and 6 to 12mm (when two intermediate layers are used);
and in the top – most layer between 3 to 6mm.

Under – drainage system:

This serves two purposes;
(i) To receive and collect filtered water,
(ii) To allow for backwashing cleaning of the filter.
The under – drainage system is designed to pass filtered water as well as collecting wash water.
With upward flow, the rate is about 300 to 900l/min/m2 of filter area, or more, care being taken to
avoid exceeding the settling velocity of the smallest particle to be retained on the filter which usually
ranges between 0.3 to 0.9m/min.
Various forms of under-drainage systems are in use;
(i) Manifold and lateral system
(ii) The wheeler bottom
(iii) Porous plate bottom, etc
The manifold and lateral system type of installation consists of about 0.4m diameter manifold pipe
running lengthwise along the centre of the filter bottom. Laterals of about 0.1m in diameter are
connected to the manifold in both directions at right angles to it. The laterals are placed at about 0.15
to 0.3m apart as shown in Fig.4.

Perforated pipe type of system:

The lateral drains are provided with holes at the bottom side. The holes are 6 to 13mm in
diameter and make an angle of 30º with the vertical as shown in Fig. 5. The holes are spaced at about
75 to 200 mm center to center for 6 to 13mm diameter pipes, respectively. They may sometimes be
staggered on either side instead of being continuous.
Brass bushings are sometimes inserted in these holes, so as to avoid rusting of the surfaces of the
holes. The laterals drains are supported on concrete blocks, of about 40 to 50mm thickness and placed
on the floor of the filter.
In the perforated pipe system, agitation of sand particles is done by water jets and the backwash
is required at a high velocity. Rate of application may be of the order 700 to 800 litres/minute/m2 of
filter area, and the wash rate is known as high velocity wash.

Pipe and strainer type:

The laterals are attached to the manifold as in the above system but holes are not drilled into the
laterals. Instead, strainers are placed on the lateral drains as shown in Fig. 6. The strainer is usually a
brass pipe closed at its top by a perforated cap. Such strainers are placed at about 15cm apart on
lateral drains.
When the pipe and strainer system is provided, compressed air is used while backwashing the
filter.
When strainers are used (i.e. in pipe and strainer systems) wash water is required at low rates of
about 250 to 300litres/minute/m2 of filter area because compressed air assists in agitating the sand
particles, The wash rate is known as slow velocity wash.

6
 Gravel support

Perforated
caps

60 Laterals
0
Concrete
Main drain

Holes 10mm φ Bottom of floor

Fig.5: Perforated pipe type Fig.6: Section through the ‘manifold and lateral ‘
system in which laterals are provided with strainers

Points considered and kept in mind while designing sizes of the pipes to be used in the above
system:
(i) Total cross-sectional area of perforations should be kept at about 0.2% of total filter area.
(ii) Cross – sectional area of each lateral should be about 2 – 4 times the total cross – sectional
area of perforations in it, for diameter of perforations 13mm and 6mm respectively.
(iii) Cross – sectional area of the manifold should be about twice the cross – sectional area of the
lateral drains.
length of each leteral
(iv) The ratio: > 60
Diameter of the lateral
(v) Maximum permissible velocity in the manifold to provide the required amount of wash water
is about 1.8 to 2.4m/s.

Other appurtenances:
The more important ones among them include;
(i) Wash water troughs
(ii) Air compressor
(iii) Rate controller
(iv) Miscellaneous accessories, i.e. head loss indicators, meters for measuring rates of flow.

Wash water troughs:
These collect dirty wash water and convey it to the main gutter. The gutters may be square, v-
shaped or semi-circular and may be made of cast iron, concrete, steel or wrought iron. Their tops are
generally kept at least above the sand – bed by a distance of about half the depth of sand to allow for
up to 50% expansion of sand bed during backwashing. The bottoms are adjusted usually 50mm above
the top of the sand surface.
The troughs are generally spaced at about 1.5m to 2m apart and are laid at suitable slopes.

Air compressors:
During backwashing, sand grains are agitated either by water jets or by compressed air. When
compressed air is used, air compressor unit is installed, which should be able to supply air for about 4
minutes or so at a rate of about 600 to 800 litres/minute/m2 of filer area.

Rate controllers:
This is installed in order to control automatically the rate of filtration. The most commonly used
type is a venturi-rate controller which works on the principle of a venturimeter.

7
(ii) Working and cleaning of Rapid Gravity filters
• Filtration
When the inlet valve 1 is opened this allows water from sedimentation tank into the filter. The
water gets filtered and flows out of the filter by opening filtered water supply valve 4. Thus for
filtration, only values 1 and 4 are kept open, with all the valves kept closed.

• Backwashing:
When sand becomes dirty as indicated by the excessive loss of head, the filter must be
cleaned and washed.
Valves 1 and 4 are closed and valves 5 and 6 are opened. Wash water and compressed air are
thus forced upwards from the under drain. Valve 5 is closed after supplying the required amount of
air. Dirty wash water is collected into the wash water troughs and is removed by opening valve 2. The
dirty wash water then flows through the inlet chamber and into wash water gutter. Washing of filters
and removing the dirty water is generally continued for a period of 3 to 5 minutes.
• Filtering to waste and restoration of filtration
After washing of the filter is completed, valves 2 and 6 will be closed and valves 1 and 3 are
opened. This restores the inlet supplies through valve 1, but the filtered water is not collected at the
beginning and is filtered to waste with valve 3 opened. Finally, valve 3 is closed and valve 4 opened
to restore normal filtration.

The entire process of backwashing and restoring normal filtration takes about 15 minutes.
This is the amount of time the filter remains out of operation. The amount of wash water used may
vary from 2 to 5% of total amount of water filtered. Rapid gravity filters get closed frequently and
have to be washed every 24 to 48 hours. For washing, water is provided at a rate of about 500l/m2 of
bed area/minute.

(iii) Hydraulics of sand gravity filters

(a) Initial loss of head in the filter bed
The initial head loss in a newly commissioned filter is caused by the sand grains as no
impurities are present. Initial loss of head in a clean stratified filter primarily depends upon the
porosity (n) of the filter material. Other factors affecting initial head loss include: velocity (v) depth of
filter (D), diameter of sand grains (d), acceleration due to gravity (g), drag coefficient (CD), e.t.c.
Rose has given the following equation for computing the initial head loss through clean
stratified sand filter:
1.067v 2 ⋅ D CD ⋅ ( f )
hL =
φg ⋅ n 4
∑ d ...1(a)

where hL = frictional head loss through filter (m).

v = approach velocity or filtration velocity, m/s
D = depth of filter (m)
φ = shape factor (for non – spherical particles)
g = accelerations due to gravity (m/s2)
n = porosity
CD = Newton’s drag coefficient.
f = mass fraction of sand particles of diameter d
The values of CD can be computed from equations:
4
i.e. CD = 0.4 for Re > 10 (for laminar flow) ...(i)

8
 24
Or CD = for Re < 0.5 (for viscous resistance at low Re numbers) ...(ii)
Re
24 3
Or CD = + + 0.34 (for Re between 0.5 to 104 i.e. transition region). ...(iii)
Re Re
v⋅d
Also Re = . ..(iv)
υ
where Re = Reynold’s number
d = diameter of sphere (m)
v = velocity of sphere (m/s)
υ = kinematic viscosity of water (m2/s)
CD ( f )
In the Eq.1(a), the summation ∑ d
can be calculated using size distribution of sand

particles found from sieve analysis. However, for uniform sand, having representative size d, this term
CD
equals to
d
Rose equation then becomes
1.067v 2 ⋅ D CD 
hL =  ⋅
d 
4
, for uniform sand of representative particles size d. ...1(b)
 φ g ⋅ n
Initial head loss in excess of 0.6m implies that either the loading rate is too high or that the
sand has too large proportion of fine grain sizes. The design of filter must account for the additional
losses that will occur as the filter runs. Thus the filter box must be at least as deep as the highest
design head loss. This value is about 3m maximum.

(b) Hydraulic head loss and expansion of filter bed during backwashing
During cleaning, water is forced through the filter in a reversed direction, causing the filter
bed to expand. The sand grains are thus no longer in contact with each other, thus exposing all
surfaces to cleaning.
To hydraulically expand a porous bed, the head loss HLe (or uplift) must be at least equal to
the buoyant weight of the filter bed. For a unit area of the filter, this is expressed by
H Le ⋅ γ w = D ⋅ γ sub ...(2)
where HLe = head loss through filter bed required to initiate expansion, (m)
γw = Unit weight of water, kN/m3
D = depth of filter bed, (m)
γ sub = sub-merged unit weight of sand in bed of depth D ,(kN/m3)
γ w ( G − 1)
But γ sub = (derived in soil mechanics)
1+ e
where e = void ratio
G = sp.gr. of sand grains
e
But porosity n = (derived in soil mechanics)
1+ e
e 1
Or (1 − n ) = 1 − =
1+ e 1+ e
∴ γ sub = γ w ( G − 1)(1 − n )

9
 Eq. (2) then becomes
H Le ⋅ γ w = D ⋅ γ w ( G − 1)(1 − n )
Or H Le = D ( 1 - n )( G - 1 ) ...(3)
Even when the bed gets expanded to depth De, the head loss through the expanded bed
remains unchanged, because the total buoyant weight of the bed is constant.
But weight of fluidized/expanded bed
= De (1 − ne )( G − 1)
∴ H Le = De (1 − ne )( G − 1) ...(4)
where De = depth of expanded/fluidized bed, (m)
ne = porosity of the expanded/fluidized bed
Equating equation (3) and (4), we get
D (1 − n )( G − 1) = De (1 − ne )( G − 1) ...(5)

Or De =
(1 - n ) D ...(6)
(1 - ne )
The expanded bed depth can thus be computed using Eq. (6). The above computation helps in
the placement of backwash troughs above the filter bed as bottom of these troughs should be kept at
least 0.15m above the expanded bed to prevent loss of filter material.
In case the sand media is not uniformly represented by a representative grain size d, and
consists of a stratified bed of non – uniform particles, then the above equation needs to be modified
for the computation of De.The modified equation is of the form,
f
D e = (1- n ) D ⋅ ∑ ...(7)
1- n e
where f=mass fraction of sand of various sizes in the sand (as per sieve analysis)
The quantity ne is a function of the terminal settling velocity of the particles and the backwash
(or upflow) velocity. An increase in the backwash velocity will result in a greater expansion of the
bed. The expression commonly used to relate the bed expansion to backwash velocity vb and particles
settling velocity ν s is given as
0.22
ν 
ne =  b  ...(8)
 νs 
where ne = porosity of expanded bed,
ν b = backwash velocity (i.e. backwash flow divided by the total filter area),
in m/s,
ν s = settling velocity of the particle of given size d (in m) in m/s
The computation of De from Eq. (7) and (8), however is not straight forward. From Eq. (8), it
becomes obvious that the expanded porosity (ne) is a function of the settling velocity (vs).The
particle settling velocity (vs) is determined by the Eq. (9), as
1/ 2
4 
 3 gd ⋅ ( G − 1) 
νs =   ...(9)
 CD 
 

10
To solve Eq. (9), the drag coefficient CD is first calculated.The Drag coefficient is a function of
 vs ⋅ d φ 
Reynolds number Re, which in turn is a function settling velocity  Re = .
 υ 

(f) Comparison of Slow Sand and Rapid Gravity Filters

S.N Item Slow Sand filters Rapid Gravity filters
1. Pre-treatment Effluents either from plain Coagulation, flocculation and
requirements sedimentation tanks or raw waters sedimentation is a must.
without any treatment are generally
fed into them; and coagulation is not
required.
2. Base material The gravel base supports the sand. It The gravel base supports the sand
varies from 3 to 65mm in size and 30 and also distributes the wash water
to 75cm in depth. uniformly on the surface of sand.
It varies from 3 to 40mm in size
and its depth is slightly more, i.e.
about 60 to 90cm.
3. Filter sand The effective size of filter sand The effective size of the filter sand
ranges between 0.2 to 0.4mm and rages between 0.35 to 0.55 and
uniformity coefficient between 1.8 to uniformity coefficient between 1.2
2.5 or 3.0. to 1.8.

The grain size distribution is The sand is laid in layers with

generally uniform throughout the smallest grain size at top and
depth of filter media, except that top coarsest grain size at the bottom.
10 to 15cm may be laid of finer
variety.
4. Under-drainage Laid in order to receive filtered Laid in order to receive filtered
system water. water and also to pass water for
back washing at a very high rate.

Open jointed pipes or drains covered Perforated pipe laterals

with blocks may be used. discharging into mains or diffuser
plate bottom may be used.
5. Size of each unit. Large, such as (30m × 60m). The Small, such as 5m × 8m. The area
area varying from 100 to 2000m2 or varying from 10 to 80 m2.
more.
6. Rate of filtration Small, such as 100 to 200 litres per Large, such as 3000 to 6000 litres
hour per sq. m of filter area. per hour per sq. m of filter area.
7. Economy High initial cost of both land and Low initial cost, but higher cost of
materials, but low cost of operation operation and maintenance.
and maintenance. Overall, it is cheaper and
economical.
8. Depreciation Cost Relatively low. Relatively high.

9. Efficiency Very efficient in removing bacteria Less efficient in removing bacteria

(98 to 99 per cent) but less efficient (80 to 90%) but varying efficient
in removing colour. Overall turbidity in removing colour. The overall
removal in these filters using plain turbidity removal in these filters
sedimentation is also low. They using coagulation, sedimentation,
cannot handle turbid waters is also high. They can, therefore
containing turbidities more than 50 handle very turbid waters.
mg/l

11
10. Flexibility Not flexible for meeting variations in Quite flexible for meeting
demand. reasonable variations in demand.

11. Suitability and May be adopted for treating smaller They are widely and almost
adaptability village supplies or for individual universally adopted for treating
industrial supplies, especially at public supplies, especially at all
hotter places where no covers are major cities and towns.
required to protect the filters from
freezing. They are however,
becoming obsolete.

12. Post treatment, Almost pure water is obtained. Disinfection is a must and some
required, if any However, it may be disinfected other miscellaneous treatments
slightly to make it completely safe. may be given, if needed.
Other miscellaneous treatments may
or may not be required.
13. Ease in Simple. Complicated, as under drainage is
construction to be properly designed.
14. Skilled Not required Essential
supervision if
required.
15. Loss of head Approximately 10cm in the initial Approximately 0.3m is the initial
loss and 0.8 to 1.2m is the final limit loss and 2.5 to 3.5m is the final
when cleaning is required. limit when cleaning is required
16. Method of (a) Scrapping and removing the top (a) Agitating the sand grains and
cleaning 1.5 to 3cm thick layer and back washing with or without
washing down by hoses. compressed air.

(b) Laborious method. (b) Short and easy method.

17. Quantity of wash Very small amount of wash water, Large amount of wash water
water required varying from 0.2 to 0.6 per cent of varying from 1 to 5% of the total
the total water filtered is generally water filtered, is generally
needed. required.
18. Period of cleaning Cleaned at intervals of 1 to 3 months. Cleaned frequently at intervals of
1 to 3 days.

(f) PRESSURE FILTERS

(i) Introduction
Pressure filters are just like small rapid gravity filters placed in closed vessels, and through which
water to be treated is passed under pressure. Since water is forced through such filters at a pressure
greater than atmospheric pressure, it is necessary that these filters are located in air tight vessels. The
raw water is pumped into the vessels by means of pumps. The pressure so developed may normally
vary between 30 to 70 meter head of water, i.e. 300 to 700kN/m2.
(ii) Construction of Pressure Filters:
The filter vessel may be installed either in a horizontal or in a vertical position, depending upon
which, they may be classified as horizontal pressure filters or vertical pressure filters. Typical cross-
sections of both these types of filters are shown in Fig.7(a) and (b) respectively. Steel cylinders are
used as pressure vessels and may be riveted or welded. Their diameters generally vary between 1.5 to
3m, and their lengths or heights may vary from 3.5 to 8m. Inspection windows are provided at top for
inspection purposes. The positions of various valves are also clearly shown in the figures.

12
 Inlet valve for Inspection windows
Raw water Raw water or manholes
under pressure
RAW WATER
1 Gravel
SAND

3 4 Wash water
gutter valve
Inlet valve for
wash water
Filtered water valve Laterals Central Base
2
or outlet valve drain concrete

Fig. 7(a): Horizontal pressure filter

Inlet valve for Inspection windows

Raw water or manholes
Raw water
under pressure
RAW WATER
1

Gravel SAND 4 Wash water

gutter valve

3 To wash
water gutter
Inlet valve for
wash water
Main drain
2 Filtered water
Laterals
Base
valve or outlet
concrete
valve

Fig. 7(b): Vertical pressure filter

(iii) Working and Operation of Pressure Filters:

A pressure filter is operated like an ordinary rapid gravity filter except that the raw coagulated
water is neither flocculated nor sedimented before it enters the filter. The flocculation takes place
inside the pressure filter itself. Under normal working conditions, the coagulated water under pressure
enters the filter vessel through the inlet valve 1 and the filtered water comes out of the outlet valve 2.
Hence, under this condition, only these two valves are kept open and all other valves are kept closed.
The commonly used coagulant is alum and is kept in a pressure container connected to the influent
line to the filter (not shown in the figure). Little time is thus available for this coagulant to get mixed
properly or to form floc outside the filter vessel.
The cleaning of the filer may be carried out by back washing as is done in a normal rapid gravity
filter. The compressed air (though not shown in figure) may also be used, if designed, in order to
agitate the sand grains. For cleaning the inlet and outlet valves, [i.e. valves 1 and 2] are closed and the
wash water valve 3 and wash water gutter valve 4 are opened. After the completion of cleaning, these
valves may be closed and raw supplies restored. However, the filtered supplies should not be collected
for a little time and water is wasted through valve 4, as is done in a rapid gravity filter.

13
 These filters are cleaned when the loss of head due to clogging exceeds a certain fixed value.
Pressure filters may require a lightly more frequent cleaning as compared to that required by rapid
gravity filters, because the impurities which are removed in the sedimentation tank in case of rapid
gravity filters, are also removed by the filter in case of pressure filters. Compact automatic pressure
filters, in which the cleaning is done automatically at a predetermined interval of time or head of loss,
are now-a- days available.

(iv) Rate of Filtration of Pressure Filters:

The pressure filters can yield filtered water at a rate of 2 to 5 times that obtained from rapid
gravity filters. Their rate of filtration normally ranges between 6000 to 15000 litres per hour per sq. m
of filter area. The lower rates are used for domestic supplies, medium rates for industrial supplies, and
higher rates for recirculation swimming pool supplies.

(v) Efficiency and Suitability of Pressure Filters:

The pressure filters are less efficient than the rapid gravity filters in removing bacteria and
turbidities. The quality of their effluent is poorer and they are generally not used for public supplies.
But since a pressure filter provides a compact and an easy handling machine, they may be preferred
for treating smaller quantities of comparatively clearer waters. Hence, they may be installed for
colonies of few houses, individual industries, private estates, swimming pools, railway stations e.t.c.

(vi) Advantages and disadvantages of Pressure Filters:

The relative advantages and disadvantages of pressure filters over those of rapid gravity filters
are as follows:
Advantages:
(i) A pressure filter is a compact machine and can be handled easily. Even completely automatic
units have been designed.
(ii) It requires lesser space and lesser filtering material for treating the same quality of water,
because the rate of filtration is higher (2 to 5 times that of a rapid gravity filter).
(iii) Sedimentation and coagulation tanks are avoided.
(iv) They are more flexible as the rate of filtration can be changed by changing the pumping
pressure.
(v) When installed on a large scale for treating turbid waters, pressure filters though prove
costlier, yet may prove economical for treating smaller quantities of comparatively clearer
water. Hence, they can be best adopted for supplying water to co-operative housing societies,
individual industrial plants, private estates, swimming pools e.t.c.
(vi) Since the water coming out of filters possesses sufficient residual head (as the only loss of
head is that required to force the water through the filter), the re-pumping of the filtered water
is not required, as is the case with the rapid gravity filters.

Disadvantages:
(i) Although the rate of filtration is high, the filter unit being smaller, the overall capacity of the
plant is small.
(ii) They are less efficient in removing bacteria and turbidities and hence the quality of the
filtered effluents is poorer.
(iii) They are costlier, particularly for treating large scale municipal supplies.

14
 (iv) Since the process of filtration as well as that of back washing takes place in a closed tank,
proper inspection and quality control is not possible.
(v) Inspection, cleaning and replacement of sand, gravel and under-drainage system is difficult.
(vi) Because of their inherent curved shapes, properly designed wash water gutters which can trap
the washed impurities without flushing them back to other portions of the sand bed, cannot be
provided easily.
(vii) Since these filters are operated under pressure, the normal tendency is to pump the water at
higher rates, and thus obtaining still poorer quality of effluent.

Due to these disadvantages, pressure filters are generally not used for treating municipal surface
supplies, particularly for any city or major industrial town. Rapid gravity filters are almost invariably
and universally used under all such conditions.

Example 1: In a water treatment plant, raw water is passed through a filter bed of uniform sand at a
velocity of 5m/hour. The filter is made of sand grains of diameter = 0.4mm, shape factor = 0.85, and
specific gravity = 2.65. The depth of the bed is 0.67m and the porosity is 0.4. Determine the head loss
through the bed. (Take density of water = 998Kg/m3, and dynamic viscosity = 1.0 ×10−3 kg / ms ).

Solution:
The head loss through a clean stratified sand filter with uniform porosity and having
representative particle size d, is given by Rose’s equation as:
1.067 ( v 2 ) D  CD 
hL = ⋅ 
φ⋅ g ⋅ n 4  d 
where hL = frictional head loss through filter, (m).
v = approach velocity or filtration velocity, (m/s)
D = depth of filter, (m)
φ = shape factor (for non – spherical particles)
g = accelerations due to gravity (m/s2)
n = porosity
CD = Newton’s drag coefficient.
The equation to be used for computing CD depends upon the value of Reynold number (Re)
which is first calculated by using the equation,
v.d
Re =
ν
where ν = velocity of flow in m/s
ν = kinematic viscosity of water in m2/s
d = diameter of spherical sand particles
= φd for non spherical particles where φ is shape factor
ν.φd
∴ Re =
v
Substituting given values, we get
ν = filtration velocity in m/s
5m
= 5m/hr (given) = = 1.389 ×10−3 m / s
( 60 × 60 ) sec
−3
d = sand grains diameter = 0.4mm = 0.4 ×10 m

15
 φd = 0.85 × 0.4 ×10−3 = 0.34 ×10−3 m
µ 1.0 ×10−3 kg
v= = m. s = 1.002 ×10−6 m2 / s
ρω 998 mkg3

Re =
(1.389 ×10 ) × ( 0.34 ×10 ) = 0.471 < 0.5
−3 −3

1.002 × 10−6
Since Re < 0.5, the coefficient of drag force (CD) can be calculated by using the equation:
 24  24
CD =   = = 50.92
R
  e 0.471
2
1.067 ⋅ (1.389 × 10 −3 ) × ( 0.67 )  50.92 
Now, hL = 4  0.4 × 10−3 
0.85 × 9.81× ( 0.4 )
10−6
= 822.5 × = 0.822m
10 −3
Example 2: A rapid sand filter is to be provided in a water treatment plant, to process water for a
town with a population of 275,000. The water demand is 200litres/capita/day. The rate of filtration is
15m3/m2/hour. Allow 5% of filtered water for storage to meet the backwash requirements. Each
backwashing period is of 30 min. Determine the number of filters required allowing one as a standby
unit. The available surface area configuration of filter unit is 10m × 4m. Also computer the up-flow
velocity and head loss to expand the bed to 0.66m from its original undisturbed depth of 0.6m. The
porosity of the bed is 0.50. Specific gravity is 2.5. The average particle size is 0.6mm. The drag
coefficient is 5.02. The flow is assumed to be transitional flow.

Solution:
Water required daily
= Population × Per capita demand
6
= 275,000 × 200L/c/d = 55 ×10 l / d = 55Mld ...(i)
Filtered water required for backwashing = 5%
= 5% × 55Mld = 2.75Mld ...(ii)
∴ Daily water demand of filtered water
= ( i ) + ( ii ) = 55 + 2.75 = 57.75Mld
Since 30 minutes (i.e. 0.5hr) is lost daily in backwashing the filter, the effective time left for working
of filter units
= 24 − 0.5 = 23.5hr
57.75
∴ Filtered water required per hour = = 2.457 Ml/h
23.5
Now, filtration rate = 15m3/m2/h (given)
∴ Area of filter required
 2.457 × 106  3
 103 m /h
= 3

2
= 163.83m2
15m / m ⋅ h
Size of filter (given) = 10m × 4m
∴ Area of one filter unit = 40m2

16
 163.83
No of units required = = 4.01; say 4
40
(i) Using one filter unit as standby unit, total number of filters required
5
Using the equation for settling velocity ( ν s ) as
1/ 2
4 
 3 ⋅ g ⋅ d ⋅ ( G − 1) 
νs =  
 CD 
 
4
× 9.81× ( 0.6 × 10 −3 ) ⋅ ( 2.5 − 1)
= 3 = 0.048m / s
5.02
Now, using the equation,
De  1 − n 
=  , where n = 0.5 (given)
D  1 − ne 
0.66m 1 − 0.5
∴ =
0.60m 1 − ne
0.5 × 0.6
Or (1 − ne ) = = 0.455
0.66
Or ne = 0.545
Now, using the equation;
0.22
ν 
ne =  b 
 νs 
0.22
 ν 
0.545 =  b 
 0.048 
Or νb = 3.04 × 10−3 m / s = 182mm / min
Hence, the backwash up-flow velocity = 182 mm/min
Head loss through the expanded medium is given by the equation;
hLe = (1 − ne ) De ⋅ ( G − 1)
= (1 − 0.545 ) × 0.66 ( 2.5 − 1)
= 0.45m
Example 3: Design a rapid sand filter unit of 4 million litres per day of supply, with all its principal
components.
Solution:
Water required per day = 4Ml
Assuming that 4% of filtered water is required for washing of the filter, everyday, we have
Total filtered water required per day
= 1.04 × 4M .l = 4.16M .l / day
Now, assuming that 0.5 hours is lost every day in washing the filter, we have
Filtered water required per hour

17
 4.16
= M .l / hour = 0.177 M .L / hr
23.5
Now, assuming the rate of filtration to be 5000litres/hr/m2, we have
The area of filter required
0.177 × 106 2
= m = 35.4m 2
5000
Now, assuming the length of the filter bed (L) as 1.5 times the width of the filter bed (B), and the
two beds, the total area provided
2 × ( L ⋅ B ) = 35.4
Or 2 × (1.5 B )( B ) = 35.4
35.4
Or B2 = = 11.8
3
Or B = 3.43m
∴ L = 1.5B = 1.5 × 3.43 = 5.14, say 5.2m
Or Use the length of the filter bed as = 5.2m and
35.4
B= = 3.4m
2 × 5.2
Hence, adopt 2 filter units, each of dimensions 5.2m × 3.4m
Design of the under-drainage system:
Let a “manifold and lateral system” be provided below the filter bed, for receiving the filtered
water, and to allow back washing for cleaning the filter. This consists of a central manifold pipe, with
laterals perforations at their bottom.
To design this system, assume that the area of the perforations is 0.2% of the total filter area.
∴ Total area of perforation
= 0.2% × Filter area
0.2
= × ( 5.2 × 3.4 ) m2 = 0.035m2
100
Now, assuming the area of each lateral
= 2 times the area of perforations in it (for 13mm diameter perforations), we have
Total area of laterals = 2 × Total area of perforations
= 2 × 0.035m2 = 0.070m2
Now, assuming the area of the manifold to be about twice the area of laterals, we have
The area of manifold
= 2 × 0.070 = 0.14m2
∴ Diameter of manifold (d) is given by
π 2
⋅ d = 0.14
4
0.14 × 4
Or d= = 0.42m
π
Hence, use a 0.45m diameter manifold pipe laid length wise along the centre of the filter
bottom. Laterals running perpendicular to the manifold (i.e. width-wise) eminating from the manifold
may be laid at a spacing of say 0.15m (maximum 0.30m). The number of laterals is then given as

18
 5.2 ×100
= = 34.6; say 35
15
on either side of the manifold. Hence, use 70 laterals in all, in each unit.
Now, length of each lateral
Width of filter Diameter of manifold
= −
2 2
3.4 0.45
= − = 1.475m
2 2
Now, adopting 13mm diameter perforations in the laterals, we have
Total area of perforations = 0.035m2
= 0.035m2
4 2
= 350cm2 = x ⋅ (1.3)
π
where x = Total number of perforations in all 70 laterals
4 1
∴ x = 350 × × = 263.8; say 264
π (1.3) 2
∴ Number of perforations in each lateral
264
= = 3.8; say 4
70
∴ Area of perforations per lateral
π 2
= 4 ×  × (1.3)  cm 2
4 
= 5.30cm2
Now, area of each lateral
= 2 × Area of perforations per lateral
= 2 × 5.30 = 10.60cm2
∴ Diameter of each lateral
4
= 10.60 ×
π
= 3.67cm; say 37 mm.
Hence, use 70 laterals each of 37mm diameter at 150mm c/c, each having 4 perforations of 13mm size,
with 0.45m diameter manifold.
Check:
Length of each lateral 1.475m 147.5
= = = 39.9
Diameter of lateral 3.7cm 3.7
(which is less than 60, and hence O.K)
Now, let us assume that the rate of washing of the filter is 45cm rise/minute or 0.45m/minute.
∴ The wash water discharge
0.45 × ( 5.2 × 3.4 )
= m3 / sec
60
= 0.133m3 / sec
∴ Velocity of flow in the lateral for wash water

19
 0.133
=
 π  3.7 2 
70 ×  ×   
 4  100  
0.133 ×10000
= m / sec = 1.77m / sec
70 ×10.75
Similarly, velocity of flow in the manifold
Discharge
=
Area
0.133
= 2
= 0.84m/sec, which is less than 1.8 to 2.4m/sec (maximum permissible), and
π
4 × ( 0.45 )
hence O.K
Design of wash water trough:
Wash water troughs, as said earlier are generally kept at about 1.5 – 2m apart. So in a length of
5.2
5.3m of filter bed, let us provide 3 troughs, at = 1.73m apart.
3
Now, the total wash water discharge of 0.133m3/sec enters in these 3 troughs.
Discharge in troughs
0.133
= = 0.044m3 / sec
3
The dimensions of a flat bottom trough are now designed by using an empirical formula
3
Q = 1.376 ⋅ b ⋅ y 2

where Q = Discharge in m3/s

b = width of trough in m = 0.2m
y = water depth in the trough in m
3
∴ 0.044 = 1.376 × 0.2 y 2

Or y = 0.3m = 300mm
Keeping 50mm freeboard, adopt the length of trough
= 300 + 50 = 350mm
Hence, 3 No. wash water troughs of size 350mm × 200mm may be used.

20