Filtration

Filtration
Filtration is done to remove the fine particles present
in water
Screening and sedimentation - suspended solids and
organic matter present in raw supplies
The percentage of removal of the fine colloidal
matter increases with the use of coagulants
It is done to remove the remaining impurities after
the above processes
It help in removing colour, odour, turbidity and
pathogenic bacteria from the water
Water is filtered through the beds of fine granular
material, such as sand, etc.
The process of passing the water through the beds of
such granular materials (called filters) is known as
filtration
Theory of filtration
Filtration is done under four different processes
1. Mechanical straining
 The suspended particles present in water
which are bigger in size than the size of voids
will be arrested in the voids of filter
 This mat which is created by arrested particles
and coagulated flocs on the top of the bed -
straining out the impurities
2. Flocculation and sedimentation
Filters are unable to remove particles smaller than the
voids present in filter
The void spaces act like tiny sedimentation-
coagulation tanks
The colloidal matter get arrested in these voids as a
gelatinous mass and therefore attract other finer
particles
Settled particles are then removed
3. Biological metabolism

Micro-organisms and bacteria resides initially in the

voids of the filter or as coatings over sand grains
These organisms require organic impurities (such as
algae, plankton etc.) as food for survival
These organisms convert organic impurities into
harmless compounds (schmutzdecke or dirty skin) by
the process of biological metabolism
 This layer of harmless compound and they help in
absorbing and straining out the impurities
4. Electrolytic changes

The purifying action of filter can also be explained by the theory of

ionisation

 According to the theory,

Sand grains of the filter media and the impurities in water carry

electrical charges of opposite nature

These oppositely charged particles and the impurities come to contact

with each other and neutralise each other, thereby making water purer

Filter is then cleaned

 Filter materials
Sand
fine or coarse is generally used as filter media
Filter sand are obtained from rocks like quartzite
 free from dirt and other impurities
 uniform in nature and size,
Too smaller sized particle -frequent clogging of filters - very
low filtration rates and large size - permit the suspended
particles and bacteria to pass through it without being removed
It should be hard and resistant. It should not loose more than
5% of its weight when placed in HCl for 24 hrs
Filter materials
Gravel
Gravel which may be used below the sand should be hard,
durable, free from impurities, properly rounded and density of
about 1600 kg/m3

other materials
 Anthracite can be used instead of sand
 Its made from anthracite a type of coal stone, it gives good
filtration rates
 This coal is not available in India and sand continues to be
principle filter medium
Types of filters and their
classification
There are mainly three types of filters
1. Slow sand filters
2. Rapid gravity filters
3. Pressure filters
Classification based on rate of
filtration
Filters

Rapid sand filters slow sand filters

Rapid gravity Pressure

filters filters
Classification based on consideration
of gravity and pressure

Filters

Gravity filters Pressure filters

Slow sand Rapid sand

filters filters
 1. Slow sand filters
Develped by James Simpson in 1829
Used in smaller plants
remove larger percentage of impurities and bacteria
rate of filtration - slow (th of rapid gravity filters)
Require large area – labour - filter(sand)
Hence not preferred
Turbidity <20NTU can be fed without any
pretreatment
Higher turbidity – pretreatment necessary
FILTERED WATER WELL
Construction of slow sand filters
1. Enclosure tank
open water-tight rectangular tank
Made up of brick masonry or concrete
Bed slope towards central drain 1 in 100
Depth of tank varies from 2.5 to 3.5 m
Plan area vary from 100 to 2000 sq m
Filtration rate 100 to 200 litres/hr/m2
2. Filter media

sand layers - 90 to 110 cm in depth, placed over a

gravel support
Effective size (D10) of size varies from 0.2 to 0.4
mm
Uniformity coefficient = () varies from 1.8 to 3
Finer the sand- highly efficient in removing
bacteria and turbidity – low filtration rate
Hence fine sand – not preffered – when
pretreatment is not done or poorly done
Coarse sand – preferred – pretreatment done
Should not contain more than 2% of Ca and Mg
carbonate
Normally graded sand is not used , uniform grain size is used
D10 –size of sieve in mm through which 10% of the sample of
sand by mass will pass

Ratio of sieve size in mm through which 60% of the sample

will pass to the effective size of sand
3. Base material

Base material is generally gravel -supports sand

It consists of 30 to 75 cm thick gravels of
different sizes
Placed in layers, generally 3 to 4 layers of 15-
20 cm
Coarsest at the bottom – finer at the top
4. Under-drainage system

The gravel support is laid on the top of an under-

drainage system
It consists of a central drain and lateral drains – earthen
pipe or perforated pipe – 7.5cm to 10cm dia
The laterals are open jointed pipes drains or some other
kind of porous drains placed 2 to 3m apart , sloping
towards a central drain
5. Inlet and outlet arrangements
 Inlet chamber - effluent from sedimentation tank
without disturbing the sand layers of the filter
 A filtered water well is constructed on the outlet
side to collect filtered water coming out

6. Other appurtenances
 Vertical air pipe – help in proper functioning of the
filtering layers
 Telescopic tube – to maintain uniform discharge
 Device for controlling the depth of water above filters –
1 to 1.2m
 Device for measuring loss of head
 Maintain constant rate of flow through the filter
 Working of slow sand filter
Water enters → inlet chamber → depth of water in tank =
thickness of sand filter → passes through sand filter thus gets
purified underdrains → filtered water well → storage tank

Impurities removed – combination of various process ( straining,

sedimentation, biochemical and biological process)
 water entering the slow sand filter shouldn’t be treated by
coagulant – dirty skin formed by the floc – economical working of
filter is affected
The loss of head → Filter head
Filter head - difference in water level between filter tank and
filtered water well
Its caused by the resistance offered by the filter media to the
flowing water – generally 10 to 15cm in the beginning
But as the suspended particles is arrested and the thickness of
dirty skin increases → resistance to flow increases → increase
in filter head
 it is limited to maximum value of 0.7 to 1.2m or 65 to 85%
of the thickness of sand bed .
If filter head exceeds this filter - should be cleaned
cleaning of slow sand filters
First the water is drained off from the tank
Top layer - 1.5 to 3 cm of filter scrapped manually
Rate of filtration

Rate of filtration or Rate of loading - small and ranges from

100 to 200 liters per hour per m2 of filter area
Efficiency and performance
Highly efficient in removing bacteria (upto 98 to 99% )

Can remove turbidities upto 50 mg/l - not suitable for raw

water with turbidity more than 50 mg/l
 Rapid sand filters

Rapid sand filters are preferred over slow sand filters

for the following reasons
• Rate of filtration
• Area for installation
Rapid sand filters can also be called as mechanical
sand filters
Rapid sand filters are of two types

1. One which utilize comparatively larger sized sand

particles

2. One which utilize the development of pressure

over the filtering water
 Rapid gravity filters

Various parts of gravity filter

1. Enclosure tank
• open water tight rectangular tank
• Depth - 2.5 to 3.5 m
• Area - 10 to 80 m2 for each unit
• The no of unit in a filter plant can be obtained by
N= 1.22 √(Q)
Q- capacity in MLD
Note- there should be a minimum of 2 filter units in any plant
2. Filter media

• sand layers - 60 to 90 cm in depth, placed over a

gravel support

• Effective size (D10) - 0.35 to 0.55 mm

• Uniformity coefficient () - 1.3 to 1.7

3. Base material

• Base material is generally gravel -supports sand

• It consists of 60 to 90 cm thick gravels of different sizes

• Placed in layers - 5 to 6 layers- each10-15 cm depth

Size of gravel

Top most layer 3 - 6mm

6 - 12mm

↓ 12 - 20mm

20 - 40mm

Bottom 40 - 65mm
4. Under drainage system

Rapid sand filters serve two purposes

i. To receive and collect the filtered water

ii. To allow the back washing for cleaning of filter

• high upward flow rate of about 300 – 900 lt/min/m2

5. Other appurtenances
i. wash water troughs-
ii. Air compressor
iii. Rate controller
iv. Miscellaneous
accessories (head loss
indicators)
Wash water troughs- the dirty wash water after cleaning is
sent to main gutter using this. Square or semi circular
shaped made of iron or concrete. Placed above sand bed at
a distance half of the sand bed.
Air compressor – to supply compressed air at a rate of 600
to 800 lt/min/m2 for about 4 min
• Rate controller – maintains uniform rate of filtration

• Back washing: 15 mins. 5% of filtered water

Working and cleaning of rapid gravity filters
• Valves 1 and 4 are closed, and valves 5 and 6 are opened
allowing wash water and air forced upwards
• The dirty water resulting from wash overflows into wash
water troughs and are removed by opening valve 2
• This is done for a period of 3 to 5 mins
• After washing of filter is complete, valves 2 and 6 are
closed and valves 1 and 3 are opened so as to allow the
filtered water in the beginning is washed for few minutes
through valve 3 to the gutter
Back washing

• A filter is washed when

loss of head through it has
reached the maximum
permissible limit
• washed by sending air and
water upwards through
the bed by reverse flow
(agitate the sand
particles) - back washing

• Pressure – 40kN/m2
• backwashing takes about 15
mins and remains out of
operation for this time
• Amount of water required for
back washing vary from 2 to
5% of water filtered
• Filter sludge have to be
suitably disposed
• Filters can also be washed
easily and efficiently by
means of specially designed
nozzles this process is called
surface wash – 100–200kN/m2
pressure
Operational troubles in rapid gravity filter

1. Cracking and clogging of filter bed

• This is caused by rapid accumulation of solids on the

top surface of fine media

• Effects efficiency of the filter

Operational troubles in rapid gravity filter

2. Formation of mud balls

• Its caused due to insufficient washing of sand grains

• Mud accumulated can be eliminated by providing
adequate backwash flow
Operational troubles in rapid gravity filter

3. Air binding
Its caused when dissolved air and gases from water are
released in the form of air bubbles
Rate of filtration

• 3000 to 6000 liters/hr/sq m of filter area

• This high rate saves space as well as filter materials

Efficiency and performance of rapid gravity
filters

• Rapid gravity filters are less efficient in removing bacteria

(80-90%) and turbidities (35 to 40 mg/l)

• Highly efficient in color removal

• Best and economical

 Pressure filters

• They are similar to rapid gravity filters placed in closed

vessels

• Filters are located in air tight vessels

• Water is pumped into the vessels

• Pressure developed is 300 to 700 kN/m2 (head 30 to 70 m)

Construction of pressure filters

• vertically or horizontal position

• Material used – steel cylinders

• Diameter – 1.5 to 3m

• Heights – 3.5 to 8 m
Working and operation

• Flocculation takes place inside the pressure filter

• Alum is coagulant
Rate of filtration of pressure filters

• Higher filtered water rates (about 2 to 3 times to

that what is obtained from rapid gravity filters )

• 6000 to 15000 lit/hr/sq m. of filter area

Efficiency and suitability of pressure filters

• Generally not used for public supplies

• Installed for colonies of few houses, individual industries etc.

Advantages of pressure filters

• Its compact machine and easy handling

• Lesser space and filtering material

• Sedimentation and coagulation tanks are avoided

• Rate of filtration can be changed by changing pumping pressure

• Economical for smaller scale supplies

Disadvantages of pressure filters

• Overall capacity of plant is small

• Less efficient in removing bacteria and turbidities

• Costlier for large scale municipal supplies

• Proper Inspection and quality control is not possible

• Replacement of sand and gravel is difficult