DESIGN AND COST ESTIMATION OF MANOHARA BRIDGE TO

SARASWATIKHEL ROAD (Changunarayan Municipality, Bhaktapur)

By

Mukund Mandal (016-826)

Rupesh Kumar Chaudhary (016-832)

Umesh Sah (016-844)

A project report submitted to Pokhara University in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Bachelor of Civil and Rural Engineering

Advisor

Jr. Prof. Yaman Dhakal

Department of Civil and Rural Engineering

Nepal Engineering College
Changunarayan, Bhaktapur

23 Nov 2022
 Acknowledgements

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our respective project advisor and HOD
Jr. Prof. Yaman Dhakal for providing proper guidance and encouragement during our
project period.

We would also like to thanks Asst. Prof. Dharma Raj Bagale for his valuable support
during our project.

We would also like to thank sincerely to all the judges of the project presentation and all
the teachers who helped us directly and indirectly to complete our proposal.

Finally, we would like to thank our parents for their great blessing on us which made us
confident in completing the report.

Hope this report could be advantageous to most of people and lots of people could be
benefitted.

ii
 Table of Contents
Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................ii
Abbreviations.......................................................................................................................v
Chapter 1..............................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................1
1.1 General.......................................................................................................................1
1.2 Objective of the project..............................................................................................1
1.3 Scope of the project....................................................................................................1
Chapter 2..............................................................................................................................2
LITERATURE REVIEW....................................................................................................2
2.1 Importance of Road in Rural Development...............................................................2
2.2 Classification of Road................................................................................................3
2.3 Design Consideration of Rural Road.........................................................................4
2.3.1 Design Considerations........................................................................................4
2.4 Road Alignment.........................................................................................................5
2.4.1 Process of Identifying Best Route Location.......................................................5
2.4.2 Factors Controlling Road Alignment..................................................................6
2.5 Geometric Design of Road.........................................................................................7
2.5.1 Elements of Geometric Design......................................................................7
2.5.2 Cross-Section Elements..................................................................................8
2.5.3 Sight Distance...................................................................................................11
2.5.4 Vertical Alignment Details...............................................................................12
2.5.5 Horizontal Alignment Details......................................................................15
2.5.6 Intersection Elements......................................................................................20
2.7 Highway Drainage....................................................................................................20
2.7.1 Introduction......................................................................................................20
2.7.2 Importance of Highway Drainage...................................................................20
2.7.3 Design of Surface Drainage System...............................................................21
2.7.4 Cross-Drainage Structure.............................................................................21
2.8 Pavement design.......................................................................................................22
2.8.1 Types of pavement:...........................................................................................22
2.8.2 Design of flexible pavement.............................................................................23
2.9 Retaining Structure...................................................................................................24
2.9.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................24
2.9.2 Functional Requirements of Retaining Structures:...........................................24
2.9.3 Types of Retaining Walls..................................................................................25
Chapter 3............................................................................................................................28

ii
i
METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................................28
3.1 Site Details...............................................................................................................28
3.2 Instruments...............................................................................................................28
3.3 Detail Survey work..............................................................................................28
3.4 General.................................................................................................................28
Stepping method will perform cross section leveling perpendicular to the alignment
for 15.00m from center line on both sides. Horizontal curves should be designed
where deflection angle found greater than 5 ̊. The radius of curve (R) is assumed
regarding design speed. Easting and Northing of the BM is assumed. The temporary
benchmark is determined using GPS device Survey work was done where first
Reduced Level (RL) was found by GPS, for the vertical control and elevation of the
Station was fixed........................................................................................................29
3.5 Data Collection....................................................................................................29
3.6 Engineering Design..............................................................................................29
3.7 Engineering Drawing...........................................................................................29
SCHEDULE OF PROJECT...............................................................................................30

iv
 Abbreviations

CH Chainage
BM Bench mark
RL Reduced level
IP Intersection point
DCC District Coordination Committee
E/W Earth work
BM soil Boulder mixed soil
PCC Plain Cement Concrete
Q Quality
OS Ordinary Soil
PCU Passenger Car Unit
L Length
B Breadth
H Height
Cum Cubic meter
Sq Square meter
TBM Temporary Bench mark
ADT Average Daily Traffic
CG Centre of gravity
BC Beginning of curve
MC Midpoint of curve
EC End of curve
Cm Cement mortar
CBR California Bearing ratio method
NRRS Nepal Rural Road standard
DoLIDAR Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Road
DoLI Department of Local Infrastructure

v
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General

Nepal is a country full of Himalayans where transportation can be troublesome because of

its uneven mountainous landscape. Being a landlocked and rocky nation, road
transportation is the least demanding and easiest method for going in Nepal. Each
commodity that is delivered requires transport at all the phases from production to
dispersion. Great system of transportation upgrades the speed of advancement to save
time, energy and money.

In 2069 there were 6,683 provincial roads with absolute length of 5, 0943.647Km out of
which 1,575.434 Km had been blacktopped, 14,601.921 Km had been graveled, 3,
4766.293 had been earthen. The thickness of the street was 34.61 Km/km2.The
population affected with the expressed road network was 1.91Km/1000 people. (Do
LIDAR, 2070).

There are total of 15 National Highways, which covers length 3538 km and 51 Feeder
road, which covers length of 2552.11 km. Road is the primary wellspring of surface
transport giving mass development of products and facilities to all traveler. Road
transport increment adaptability, door-to-door services, and easy and time saving services
in every region. Road development and transportation framework makes a high level of
work. To experience the expanding population and their interest the length of street must
be expanded. Since the National Highways establishes the essential system of the road
framework, they should develop and take care of the roads and their length ought to be
expanded to satisfy the requests of expanding population.

1.2 Objective of the project

The main objective of our undertaking project are ;

 To carry detailed Survey, Design and Cost Estimate of the road interface from
Manohara Bridge to Saraswatikhel road.
 To provide good access to road.
 To enhance the use of local available resources.

1.3 Scope of the project

• The Various extent of the undertaking can be summarized as follows: Specified

survey, preparation of structure comprising of plan, profile as well as cross-
sectional areas of venture road from the observed data and information.
• Give preventive measures and suitable solutions for critical areas.
• Carry out pavement design.
• Estimation of general expense related with the project completion.

1
 Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Importance of Road in Rural Development

A nation can't advance except if it has a decent road network. It enhances market
intelligence while empowering value leveling among various transport locales of the
nation. Since Nepal's economy is agrarian in character and the settlement design is rural
oriented, country roads establish a basic component of the transport infrastructure. Road
division assumes an important job in socio-economic development and regional
integration in Nepal. The rural roads are basic to interface the provincial zones with the
urban communities or market focuses. Individuals in the rural regions need to travel long
separations once a day to get to merchandise and ventures for domestic requirement and
occupations. Thus, the absence of a proper means of transporting produces hindrance to
district trades and economic development. The economic development is only possible
when the rural economy gets developed. This is only possible when the rural people are
able to access the daily requirements at cheaper cost and on timely basis. The specific
importance of rural road is:

I. National Integration:
Better roads contribute to the reduction of regional differences and to the building
of national unity through integration, resulting from enhanced transport services.

II. Economic Growth:

Better road connectivity stimulates economic growth by reducing transportation
costs and providing access to markets, thus facilitating agricultural growth by
ensuring reliable delivery of inputs and timely marketing of production at
reasonable cost.

III. Strategic Asset:

Better roads bolster Nepal’s strategic geographical position as an essential transit
corridor for its landlocked neighbors, facilitating their access to international
markets.

IV. Poverty Reduction and Social Development:

Roads provide access to Municipality office, administrative and social support
services, employment opportunities, schools, health care facilities and other social
services.

2
2.2 Classification of Road

According to NRRS, 2071 the road is classified as:

i. Administrative classification

Administrative classification of road is intended for assigning national importance and

level of government responsible for overall management and method of financing.
According to this classification, roads are classified into:

• National Highways

National Highways are main roads connecting East to West and North to South of the
Nation. These serve directly the greater portion of the longer distance to travel, provide
consistently the higher level of service in terms of travel speeds, bear the inter-community
mobility. These roads shall be the main arterial routes passing through the length and
breadth of the country as a whole. They are designated by letter “H” and also followed by
a two-digit number.

• Feeder Roads

Feeder roads are important roads of localized nature. These serve the community's wide
interest and connect District Headquarters, Major economic centers, Tourism centers to
National Highways or other feeder roads. They are designated by letter “F” and also
followed by 3-digit number.

• District Roads

District Roads are important roads within a district serving areas of production and
markets, and connecting with each other or with the main highways.

• Urban Roads

Urban Roads are the roads serving within the urban municipalities, which has the
provision of sidewall for pedestrian, kerb and drainage facilities normally below road
level.

3
 ii. Functional classification

Table 2.1 Functional Classification of Road

Class Average daily traffic (ADT) Design speed

Class I 20,000 PCU or more in 20 years 80 kmph (in mountainous)
perspective period
Class II 5000 – 20,000 PCU in 20 years 60 kmph (in mountainous)
perspective period
Class III 2000 -5000 PCU in 20 years perspective 40 kmph (in mountainous)
period
Class IV Less than 2000 PCU in 20 years 30 kmph (in mountainous)
perspective period

Where, PCU = Per Car Unit

2.3 Design Consideration of Rural Road

2.3.1 Design Considerations

The design consideration of roads are based on many factors including design speed,
functional classification, vehicular volume, types of vehicles, existing terrain and natural
features, community impacts, environmental effects, cost considerations and the right of
way needed for road development. Road design is accomplished with the consideration of
following design criteria and guidelines:

• Design Capacity: Design capacity shall provide the basis for determining the
class of the rural road. For example, a road classified as ‘B’ on the basis of
connectivity might be changed into a class ‘A’ road, if the volume of traffic is
found to be higher.

• Design Speed: When the design speed is higher, the design standards should be of
higher order which ensures the road safety, capacity, and comfort and decreases
the user’s operational expenditure but the choice of design speed is influenced by
the class of road, traffic volume, available budget and the terrain.

• Terrain: The terrain through which the rural transport linkage passes directly
influences the selection of geometric standards such as formation width,
carriageway width, right of way, free board, radius of horizontal curves, gradient
and intervals of passing zones.

• Environment: The factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution, noise

pollution and other local conditions should be given due consideration in the
design on road geometrics.

4
2.4 Road Alignment

Road alignment may be defined as the position or layout of the center line of the road on
the ground surface. The horizontal alignment includes straight path and the horizontal
deviations called curves. Changes in gradient and vertical curves are covered under
vertical alignments of road. To determine the precise position of the layout of the road
centerline from the design drawing on ground during construction it is essential to
determine three coordinates (X, Y and Z) of all points from the center line. Thus, Road
alignment is located on the ground with the help of its two components. A new road
should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment will result in one or more of the
following disadvantages:

i. Increase in construction cost

ii. Increase in vehicle operation cost
iii. Increase in maintenance cost
iv. Increase in accident rates

It is highly uneconomical to change the road alignment once it is aligned and constructed
due to the increase in construction costs of required structures and costs of adjoining land.
Thus, careful consideration must be taken while finalizing the alignment.

2.4.1 Process of Identifying Best Route Location

The basic requirements an ideal alignment between two terminal stations are that it should
be:

i. Short: The alignment between two terminal stations needs to be short in distance.
Road alignment deviates from its shortest path due to obligatory points, such as
gradient, mountain pass, structures, ditches and intermediate population center.

ii. Easy: The Road alignment should be such that it is easy to construct and maintain
with minimum problems. In addition, the alignment should be easy for the
operation of vehicles with easy gradients and curves.

iii. Safe: The alignment should he safe enough for construction and maintenance
from the viewpoint of stability of natural hill slopes, embankment and cut slopes
and foundation of embankments. In addition, it should be safe for the traffic
operation with safe geometric features.

iv. Economical: The road alignment can be considered economical only if the total
cost including initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost is lowest
but also maintaining SESE. All these factors should be given due consideration
before working out the economics of each alignment. Besides these points, the
alignment best serving the population as well as providing maximum utility
should be considered while selecting the alignment.

5
 2.4.2 Factors Controlling Road Alignment

While designing road alignment, the distance between two terminals should be kept as
straight and short as far as possible. Due to various practical difficulties such as physical
condition and obstructions, it is not always possible. The shortest route might have very
steep gradients. Similarly, there may be construction and maintenance problems along a
route, which may otherwise be short and easy. Roads are often deviated from the shortest
possible route in order to fulfill the demand of road as per the importance of obligatory
points.

A road, which is economical in the initial construction cost, need not necessarily be the
most economical in the maintenance or in cost of vehicular operation. The various factors
which control the highway alignment in general may be listed as:

a) Obligatory points
b) Traffic
c) Geometric Design
d) Economics
e) Other Considerations

a) Obligatory Points

These are the control points governing the alignment of road. These are of two types.
 Points through which a road is to pass such as:
 An industrial area or mine zone to which a highway is to serve additionally
 Quarry
 Hill pass
 Link with intermediate towns
 Bridge site
 Tourist spots

 Points through which Road should not pass such as:

 Marshy place and waterlogged areas.
 Historically and archeologically importance property
 Restricted zone for defense, national security
 Costly structural elements requiring heavy compensation.

b) Traffic

Traffic requirements need to be fulfilled while selecting the alignment. The desire lines
should be drawn showing the trend of the traffic flow and the detail study of their origin
and destination points need to be carried out. The desired lines, traffic flow patterns and
future trends need to be carefully considered while aligning the highway.

6
c) Geometric Design

Factors such as gradient, radius of curve and the sight distance also would govern the
final alignment of the highway. The gradient should be flat and less than ruling or design
gradient as far as possible. Adjustments considering the horizontal alignment along with
the view of design speed, maximum allowable super elevation and lateral friction need to
be considered.

d) Economy

In working out the economics, the initial cost of the maintenance and vehicle operation
should be taken into account. There should be balance in cutting and filling with the
decrement of high embankment and deep cutting.

e) Other Considerations

Factors like drainage considerations, hydrological factors, political considerations and

monotony may govern the alignment. The vertical alignment is guided by drainage
considerations. The subsurface water level, seepage flow and high flood level are the
factors to be kept in view.

For Hill Road special consideration needs be given to such concerns as:

a) Stability
b) Drainage
c) Geometric standards of hill roads
d) Composition of traffic

2.5 Geometric Design of Road

Geometric design of road deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of road
such as alignment, cross slope or camber, gradient, sight distance considerations,
horizontal and vertical alignment details, intersection elements, width, turning radius,
carriage way, kerb and road margins. The geometry of the road should be designed to
provide optimum efficiency in traffic operations with maximum safety at reasonable cost
and also should be consistent with its economy. Therefore, it is important to plan and
design the geometric features of the road during the initial alignment itself taking into
consideration the future growth of the traffic flow as well as the possibility of the road
being upgraded to a higher category or to a higher design speed standard at a later stage.

2.5.1 Elements of Geometric Design

Geometric design of Road deals with following elements:

 Cross section elements
 Sight distance considerations
 Horizontal alignment details
 Vertical alignments
7
  Intersecting element

2.5.2 Cross-Section Elements

Cross-sections are run along transverse direction to the longitudinal profile and on other
side for the purpose of lateral outline of the ground surface. They provide the data for
estimating quantities of earthwork and for other purposes. The scale selected for plotting
is equal on both the axes. Cross-sections are plotted for each element of curves. The
cross-section consists of the following:
 Pavement surface
 Cross slope or camber
 Width of pavement or carriageway
 Shoulder
 Road margins
 Width of roadway
 Right of Way
 Formation width
 Rectangular Drainage

i. Pavement Surface

The pavement surface depends on the pavement type which is decided based on the
availability of materials and funds, volume and composition of traffic, sub grade and
climate conditions, constructions facilities and cost considerations. The important surface
characteristics of the pavement are friction, pavement unevenness, light reflecting
characteristics and drainage of surface water.

ii. Cross Slope or Camber

8
Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in transverse directions to

Figure 2.4– Road Camber

(erpraxant.blogspot.com)
drain off the rain water from the road surface. The required camber of a pavement
depends on the type of pavement surface and the amount of rainfall. Too steep cross slope
is not desirable because of tilting of vehicles and discomfort in driving.

Types of camber are;

a. Straight
b. Parabolic
c. Combined

9
 The NRRS 2070 has recommended of camber for the bitumen rural area to be 3%. The
recommended values of camber in different types of road is provided in table 2. In
designing the proposed road, the standard value has been considered.

Table-2.3 Values of camber in different types of road surface

Camber Types of road District Road Core Network Village Road

surface Hill Terai Hill Terai
Carriageway Earthen(existing) 5 5 5 5
slope (%) Gravel 4 4 4 4
Bituminous Seal Coat 3 3 - -

(NRRS, 2071)

iii. Width of Pavement or Carriageway

The pavement or carriageway width depends on the width of traffic lane and number of
lanes. The carriageway intended for one line of traffic movements may be called a traffic
lane. The lane width is determined on the basis of the width of vehicle and the minimum
side clearance which may be provided for safety. The recommended value of carriage
way and road width in different terrains in Nepal is provided in Table (2.4):

Table 2.4 Width of pavement carriageway for various classes of road

Carriageway width (m) Shoulder Roadway

width (m) width (m)
District Road Hill 5.5 ( if traffic> 400 vpd 0.75 7
Core Network 3.75 ( if traffic > 100 vpd) 0.75 5.25
3 (if traffic < 100 vpd) 0.75 4.5
Terai 5.5 ( if traffic> 400 vpd) 1 7.5
3.75 ( if traffic > 100 vpd 1.5 6.75
3 ( if traffic < 100 vpd 1.5 6
Village Road Hill 3 0.5 4
Terai 3 0.75 4.5
(NRRS, 2071)

iv. Road Margins

The various elements included in the road margins are shoulder, parking lane, frontage
road, driveway, cycle track, footpath, guard rail and embankment slope.

v. Width of Roadway

Width of roadway is the sum of widths of pavements or carriageway including separators,

if any, and the shoulder excluding side drains.

10
 vi. Right of Way

Right of way is the area of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. The width of
this acquired land is known as land width and it depends on the importance of the road
and possible future development. The NRRS2055 recommendation on the right of way
for the different types of roads is provided in Table (2.5).

Table 2.5 Right of Way (RoW)

Types of Road Row Comment

District Road (Core Network) 30 15m Row on either side from center line
Village Road 15 7.5m Row on either side from road center line
(NRRS, 2071)

vii. Formation width

Formation width shall be a total of widths of carriageways and shoulders.

2.5.3 Sight Distance

The clear distance visible ahead of a driver at horizontal and vertical curves and at
intersections governs the safe movements of vehicles.
Three sight distance situations are considered in the design:
i. Stopping sight distance
ii. Safe overtaking or passing sight distance
iii. Safe sight distance for entering into controlled intersection

The standards for sight distance should satisfy the following three conditions:
 Driver travelling at the design speed has sufficient sight distance or length of road
visible ahead to stop the vehicle, in case of any obstruction on the road ahead,
without causing collision.
 Driver travelling at the design speed should be able to safely overtake the slower
vehicles without causing obstruction or hazard to traffic from opposite direction at
a certain interval.
 Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection has sufficient visibility to enable
him/her to take control of his/her vehicle and to avoid collision with another
vehicle.

i. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot should be of sufficient
length to stop a vehicle travelling at design speed safely without collision with any other
obstruction.
The sight distance available on a road to a driver at any instance depends on
 Features of the road ahead

11
  Height of the driver’s eye above the road surface  Height of the
object above the road surface.
Stopping distance = Lag distance + Braking distance v2
SD (m) =VT +
2gf
Where, v = speed of vehicle, m/s
f = design coefficient of friction (0.4-0.35 from 30-80 Kmph)
t = total reaction time of the driver in seconds

ii. Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake
slow vehicle ahead with safety against opposite direction vehicles is known as the
overtaking sight distance or the safe passing sight distance available.
Some of the important factors on which the minimum overtaking sight distance required
for the safe overtaking maneuver depends are:
 Speed of (a) overtaking vehicle (b) overtaken vehicles (c) the vehicle coming from
opposite direction, if any.
 Distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicles. The minimum spacing
required depends on the speed.
 Skill and reaction time of the driver.
 Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle.
 Gradient of the road.

2.5.4 Vertical Alignment Details

While aligning a highway it must follow the general topography of the land. But the
natural ground may be level only at some places and otherwise the ground may have
slopes of varying magnitudes. Hence, the vertical profile of a road would have level
stretches slopes or grades as well. In order to have smooth vehicle movements on the
roads, the change in the grade should be smoothened by the vertical curves. Followings
are important to be considered in vertical alignment:

i. Design of Vertical Curve

It is necessary to introduce vertical curve at the intersection of different grades to

smoothen out the vertical profile because of changes in grade in the vertical alignment of
highway and thus ease off the changes in gradients for the fast-moving vehicles. If not so,
the drastic change in the rate of grade may subject a vehicle passing over it to an impact,
which would be dangerous leading to the loss of property and lives. Hence, the vertical
curve contributes to the safety, comfort and appearance.

ii. Types of Vertical Curve

a. Summit curve
b. Valley curve

12
a. Summit curve

The summit curve is introduced when an ascending gradient meets with descending
gradient in the alignment. The maximum permissible gradient is taken as 12% and
maximum average gradient is 8 % (NRRS, 2071). During the design, the minimum value
of stopping sight distance is considered as 30m for the design speed 30 km/hr according
to NRRS 2071.

Figure 2.7.2.5 – Summit Curve

(erpraxant.blogspot.com)

Case:

i. When L> SSD

L=(NS^2)/(√2H +√2h)^2

Height of driver's eye (H) = 1.2 m (above the pavement surface)

Height of object above the pavement surface (h) =0.15 m
S = Stopping sight distance, (SSD) =30 m
N = Algebraic difference of grade

iii. When L < SSD

L=2S- ((√2H +√2h)^2)/N

b. Valley curve

In the alignment, the valley curve is introduced when descending gradient meets with an
ascending gradient. The length of valley transition curve is designed based on the two
criteria: (I) the allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration (ii) the head light sight
distance, and the higher of the two values is adopted. Usually, the second criterion of
head light sight distance is higher and therefore governs the design. During design, sight
distance is considered and according to NRRS 2071, which consist that the headlight
sight distance will be the stopping sight distance, minimum value of stopping sight
distance is 30mand that the centrifugal acceleration will be of 0.6m/sec2.

13
 a) The length of transition curve Ls for comfort condition is given by equation,

Fig 3: Valley curve

(erpraxant.blogspot.com)

The valley curve is made fully transitional by providing two similar transition
curves of equal length. Refer figure 3 where ABC is the valley curve of total
length L and AB and BC are two equal transition curves each of length L s=L/2,
having minimum radius R at the common point B.

Length of valley curve L

N = deviation angle

𝑣 = speed in m/s
L = Total length of valley curve

𝐶 = allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

V Kmph = m/s

L=2
L = 0.38

Minimum radius of valley curve for cubic parabola is given by R =

b) Length of valley curve for headlight sight distance.

i. L > SSD

(erpraxant.blogspot.com)

Fig 4: Head light sight distance when L>S

NS2
L= Where, L = length of summit curve,

2h 1  2S tan

S = stopping sight distance, (SSD), m

14
 N = deviation angle

ii. L < SSD

Fig 5: Head light sight distance when L < S

(erpraxant.blogspot.com)

(2h 2S tan)
L = 2S -
N
Substituting h=0.75 m and =10when L<S
L = 2S - (1.5 0.035S)
N

Gradient

Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the
horizontal. It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in sometimes it is also expressed as a percentage,
n i.e. n in100.
Gradients are divided into following categories:
a. Minimum gradient
b. Ruling gradient
c. Limiting gradient
d. Exceptional gradient

2.5.5 Horizontal Alignment Details

Following elements are to be considered while designing horizontal alignment:

i. Design Speed

It is the maximum speed allowed for the vehicles to move on the road. The design
speed is the most important factor controlling the geometric design elements such
as requirements of pavement surface characteristics, cross section elements of
road, elements of horizontal alignment and element of vertical alignments. The

15
 NRRS 2071 recommendation for the design of district road is 30Kmph. The
adopted design speed is 30 Kmph for this project.

ii. Horizontal Curve

A horizontal curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to the central

line of road. They are generally used on the highways where it is necessary to
change the direction of motion. The simplest form of horizontal curve for roads is
an arc of a circle, whose radius is chosen to suite the speed of traffic using the
road or to fit geometrical constraints such as missing fixed objects or passing
through a certain point.

Elements of horizontal curves are as follows:

 Tangent Length (T): The length between the beginning of the curve or end of the
curve and the point of intersection is called the tangent length. It depends on the
deflection angle and radius of the curve given by the relation T=R tan (/2).

 Length of Curve (L): The length of curve from the point of commencement to the
point of tangency is called length of the curve. If the curve is designated by its degree
of curvature, the length of the curve will depend upon the criteria used for the
definition of the degree of curve given by relation L= π R/180.

 Length of Chord (l): It is the chord joining the point of curve with the point of
tangent or point of curve itself.

 Deflection Angle (): The angle between which a survey line makes with the
prolongation of the proceeding line is called deflection angle. It is measured to the
clockwise or anticlockwise from the prolongation of the previous line. Its value
ranges from (00-1800).

 Radius of Curve(R): For the certain speed of vehicle, the centrifugal force is
dependent on the radius of the horizontal curve. To keep the centrifugal ratio within
Low limit the radius of the curve should be kept correspondingly high. According to
the NRRS2075, the minimum radius to be adopted is 15m.

 Apex Distance (E): It is the distance between the points of intersection to the middle
of curve length. It also depends in the deflection angle and radius of the curve.

16
 Fig No 6 : Horizontal Curve
(erpraxant.blogspot.com)

 Bearing of Line: The bearing of line is the angle made by that line with respect to the
magnetic north direction. It is also known as whole circle bearing (WCB).

Radius of Horizontal Curve

For the certain speed of vehicle the centrifugal force is dependent on the radius of the
horizontal curves. To keep the centrifugal ratio within a low limit, the radius of the curve
should be kept correspondingly high. The centrifugal force which is counteracted by the
super elevation and lateral friction is given by the relation, v2
ef
gR
v2
0.07  0.15 (Where e = 0.07 maximum allowable super elevation rate)
gR
v2
0.22  (f = 0.15 design coefficient of lateral friction) gR
If the design speed is decided for a highway, the minimum radius to be adopted can be
found from the above relationship. Thus the ruling minimum radius of the curve for ruling
design speed v m/sec or V, Kmph is given by: v2
Rruling 
(e  f )g
V2
Also, Rruling 
127(e  f )g

Where, v and V = ruling design speeds in m/sec and Kmph respectively e

= rate of super-elevation
f = design value of transverse skid resistance or coefficient of friction taken as 0.15 g
= acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2

a) Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curve

17
Especially on horizontally curves, when they are not of very large radii, it is common to
widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width. The widening introduces
gradually, starting from the beginning of the transition curve or the tangent point
progressively increased at the uniform rate, till the full value of designed widening is
reached. Total widening 'We' is reached at the end of transition curve where full values of
super elevation is provided.

Mechanical widening (Wm)  nl2

2R
V
Psychological widening (Wps) 
9.5 R
Hence Total widening (We) = Mechanical widening + Psychological widening.
= Wm + Wps
Where, n = number of traffic lanes. l = Length of wheelbase of longest vehicle, m. The
value of 1 is normally
taken as 6.1m or 6.0 m for commercial vehicle.
V = design speed, Kmph.
R = radius of horizontal curves.

b) Super elevation

To counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle to
overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge
thus providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the curve. This transverse
inclination to the pavement surface is known as super elevation or banking. Introducing
super elevation permits a vehicle to travel through a curve more safely and at a higher
speed than possible with a normal crown section. The NRRS recommendation for the
super elevation where ice condition does not exist is 0.07, the maximum of 0.07 values
has been adopted for designed purpose. The minimum super elevation to be provided on
horizontal curve may be limited to the camber of the surface. There are two ways of
attainment of super elevation which are:
(a) Elimination of crown of the cambered section (b)
Rotation of pavement to attain full super elevation.

Design criteria of super-elevation

Various steps in the design of the super elevation in practical are summarized as given
below:
• The super elevation for 75% of design speed (V Kmph) is calculated neglecting
the friction.
(0.75v)2 e

gR
Or
e V2
225R

18
 • If the calculated value of e is less than 1/15 or 0.07, then the value so obtained is
provided.
If the value of e exceeds 1/15 or 0.07 then provide the maximum super elevation
equal to 1/15 and proceed with steps given below.
• Check the coefficient of the friction developed for the maximum value of e = 0.07
at the full value of the design speed.
v2
f   0.07 gR

V2
f  0.07 gR

If the value of f thus calculated is less than 0.15, the super elevation is safe for the design
speed. If not, calculate the restricted speed from the above step.

As an alternative to step 3, the allowable speed ( Va , Kmph) at the curve is calculated by

considering the design coefficient of lateral friction and the maximum super elevation
Va2
e + f = 0.067 + 0.15 = 0.217 =
127R Calculate the safe allowable
speed. Va  2.156R , m/sec. Va 
27.94R , Kmph.

If the allowable speed as calculate above higher than the design speed, then the designs is
adequate and then provides a super elevation of 'e' equal to 0.07. If the allowable speed is
less than the design speed then the speed is limited to the allowable speed Va Kmph
calculated above.

Grade Compensation on Horizontal Curves

When a sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced in a certain section of the road, which
has already maximum permissible gradient, then the longitudinal gradient should be
corrected and reduced to compensate the loss of tractive effort due to various reasons.
Some of them are:
i. Increased rolling resistance.
ii. Increased grade resistance.
iii. Increased air resistance.

Due to the turning angle of vehicles, the curves resistance is developed at the horizontal
curves. When there are horizontal curves in addition to the gradient, there will be
increased resistance to traction due to both gradient and curves; it is necessary that in such
cases, the total resistance due to grade and curve should not exceed the resistance due to
the maximum value of gradient specified. For design purpose, this maximum value may
be taken as the ruling gradient and in some special cases as limiting gradient for the
terrain. When the sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced on a road, which has already
the maximum permissible gradient, the gradient should be decreased to compensate for
the loss of tractive effort due to the curves.
19
This reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve is called grade compensation. This is
calculated from the relation:
30 R 75
Grade compensation, % = , subject to a maximum value of
R
R
Where,
R = Radius of circular curve, m

The grade compensation is not required for the curves flatter than 4% gradients.

2.5.6 Intersection Elements

Design of road intersection with facilities for safe and efficient traffic movement needs
adequate knowledge of traffic engineering.

2.7 Highway Drainage

2.7.1 Introduction

Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-soil
water within the right of way. This includes interception and diversion of water from the
road surface and sub-grade. Highway drainage is achieved by two methods as given
below.

i.Surface drainage.

The surface water is to be collected and disposed of. The water is first collected in
longitudinal drains, generally side drains and then the water is disposed of at the nearest
stream, valley or water course. Cross drainage structures like culverts and small bridges
may be necessary for the disposal of surface water from the road side drains.

ii. Sub surface drainage.

Sub-surface drainage involves removal of excess water from the sub soil. The aims of sub
surface drainage are:
a. Lowering of water table.
b. Control of seepage flow.
c. Control of capillary rise.
d. Drainage of infiltration water.

2.7.2 Importance of Highway Drainage

Followings are the importance of highway drainage:

i. It maintains the bearing capacity of soil.
ii. It removes water from flowing or standing on the carriageway.

20
 iii. It prevents from failure of pavement. iv. It reduces necessity of
maintenance cost.
v. It provides safety travel in place of freezing temperature.
vi. It prevents mud pumping pavement failure.

Side drains are meant for the drainage of the surface water these are provided on the both
side of the road to drain off the surface water from the carriageway. The longitudinal
slope of drain is made parallel to the longitudinal slope of the alignment
.

2.7.3 Design of Surface Drainage System

Design of surface drainage system involves:

i. Hydrologic analysis
ii. Hydraulic analysis

i. Hydrologic Analysis

The peak runoff is calculated by rational formula:

Q= (CIA)/360
Where Q= Runoff in m3/s
A= Area of catchment in hectare
C=Runoff coefficient
I= Rainfall intensity, mm/hr.

ii. Hydraulic Analysis

Once the design discharge is determined the hydraulic analysis is done. The side drains
are designed based on principle of open channel flow. Longitudinal slope of channels,
which is parallel to the road profile, is selected. The type of lining from which value of
‘n’ and permissible ‘V ‘is obtained is selected.
Then,
Q=A x V
Q=A x (R2/3 x S1/2)/n (1)
For the rectangular section, select economical section as, R=D/2,
B=2 x D
Solve equation (1) to get B and D
Calculate V by
V= (R2/3 x S1/2)/n for the design section which should be within the permissible limit
otherwise change lining material and redesign the section.
Where,
V=velocity of flow, m/sec
N= Manning’s roughness coefficient
A=Area, m2
P=wetted perimeter, m
R=Hydraulic radius =A/P, m
S=Longitudinal bed slope of channel

21
2.7.4 Cross-Drainage Structure

There are number of cross drainage structure is to be constructed in order to drain off the
water from the side drain.one of the important cross drainage structure in the road aliment
is culvert.

Culvert
A culvert is a closed conduit placed under the embankment to carry water across the
roadway. Culvert is preferred than a minor bridge because it is hydraulically more
efficient. According to Nepal Road Standard 2070; bridge structure of span less than 6 m
are termed as culverts.

Followings are important types of culvert:

Box Culvert: Box Culvert - A culvert in the shape of an enclosed rectangle and
Consisting of a bottom slab, two wall elements and a top slab.

(Fig: Box culvert)

(erpraxant.blogspot.com)

Causeway: These are structures provided with hill road which allows to drain off water
flowing over the road surface to the lower level safely. Generally for stability and
durability consideration RCC cause ways are used rather than dry stone cause ways.

2.8 Pavement design

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed

materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the
applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a
surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light reflecting
characteristics, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted
stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing
capacity of the subgrade. Two types of pavements are generally recognized as serving this
purpose, namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements.

22
2.8.1 Types of pavement:

• Flexible
• Rigid
• Semi –Rigid
• Composite

Table 2.6 pavement type

(struccore.com)

a) Flexible pavement:

It is essentially a layered system, which has low flexural strength, due to which the
pavements defects momentarily under load but rebounds to its original level on removal
of load. The pavement thickness is so designed that the stresses on the sub-grade soil are
kept within its bearing power. The deformation of the lower layers is reflected on to the
surface layers.

b) Rigid pavements:
This type of pavements derives its capacity to withstand loads from flexural strength or
beam strength. Inherent strength of the slab plays major role in resisting the wheel load. It
has slab action and is capable of transmitting the wheel load stresses through a wider area
below.

c) Semi-Rigid pavement:
It represents an indeterminate state between flexible and rigid pavements.

d) Composite pavements:
It comprises of multiple, structurally significant layers of different composition

2.8.2 Design of flexible pavement

23
Design of flexible pavement is done as per IS recommendation, which makes use of
California Bearing Ratio value of subgrade soil for the determination of pavement
thickness.

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

The California Bearing Ratio test is conducted for evaluating the suitability of the sub
grade and the materials used in the sub base and base course of a flexible pavement.
The plunger in the CBR test penetrates the specimens in the mould at the rate of 1.25 mm
per minute. The load required for the penetration of 2.5 mm and 5 mm are determined.
The penetration load is expressed as a percentage of the standard loads at the respective
penetration level of 2.5 mm or 5 mm.

CBR= X 100%
The penetration value is determined corresponding to both penetration levels (2.5mm and
5mm). The greater of these values is used for the design of the pavement.

On the basic of CBR method by using the Road note 31 we design the base structure of
road. The catalogue used for design of pavement are as follow:

Fig: chart of road base/surface dressing

(A reference book ; Surensdra Katwal)

2.9 Retaining Structure

2.9.1 Introduction

24
Retaining wall is that type of wall, which is used to retain the vertical mass of soil. The
primary function of retaining wall is to resist the lateral thrust of a mass of earth on one
side and sometime the pressure of subsoil, water and in many cases the wall may also be
required to support vertical loads form a structure above call surcharge.

2.9.2 Functional Requirements of Retaining Structures:

Retaining structures must specially satisfy the important requirements as below:

i. Strength and stability
ii. Durability
The retaining structures must not
i. Slide
ii. Overturn
iii. Overstress the materials of which the structures are constructed
iv. Overstress the soils in which the wall rest

2.9.3 Types of Retaining Walls

i. Cantilever retaining walls

ii. Mass retaining walls (Gravity retaining walls)

Considerations of following elements are important in the design of retaining wall:

i. Active Earth Pressure: Lateral pressure, which tends to move or overturn the wall
at all, times and this is result of the earth wedge being retained together with any
hydrostatic pressure caused by the pressure of ground water.

25
 Fig: Earth Pressure
(erpraxant.blogspot.com)
ii. Passive Earth Pressure: Reactionary pressure that builds up to resist any
forward movement will comprise the soil in front and relation to counteract this
movement.

iii. Angle of Repose: It is the natural slope taken by any soil and it is given in terms
of the angle to the horizontal base line. Angle of repose varies from 45 degree to
0 degree for wet clay but for most of soil angle of repose is nearly about 30
degree.

iv. Wedge of Soil: It is the mass of soil resting on the upper plane of the angle of
repose.

v. Surcharge Load: The part of the material or load supported by a retaining wall at
a level above the top level of the wall may be by virtue of its nature of position

Figure 8: Different Forces acting on Retaining Wall

Thumb’s Rule for Road:

26
This rule is generally based upon the working experience and used up to the height of side
hill height maximum up to 6m and their dimensions are according to the below described

Fig: Retaining wall

27
 Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY

3.1 Site Details

The site of the road survey lies in the Changunarayan Municipality of Bhaktapur. A total of 2 km will
be covered during the survey of the site. The starting of the proposed project will start from the
beginning of Manohara Bridge to Saraswotikhel road.

3.2 Instruments

The following tools and equipment's are to be used during the survey.
1. Compass
2. Measuring tape
3. Plum bob
4. Total Station
5. Staffs
6. Pegs
7. Tripod

3.3 Detail Survey work

The following hierarchy is used in project

1) Project's Concept
2) Map Study
3) Field visit and Walkover survey
4) Feasibility/Environmental/Socio-economic Study
5) Alignment Selection
6) Detail Survey
7) Design
8) Estimation
9) Detail Project Report Preparation
10) Presentation and Submission

3.4 General

Reconnaissance work is to be done for the selection of alignment. Detail survey will be started from
the starting chainage at Duwakot, taking bearing of line. Engineering survey will be done along the
proposed alignment considering several geometrical parameters according to NRRS 2071 . Horizontal
alignment will be fixed by choosing the different IPS on the ground and measuring the horizontal angle
on each IPS by using Total Station. Distance from one IP to another IP should be measured by tape. A
permanent Benchmark is fixed at certain RL and RL of each chainage at certain interval (say
20m,30m,40m …..) will be calculated by profile leveling.

28
Stepping method will perform cross section leveling perpendicular to the alignment for 15.00m from
center line on both sides. Horizontal curves should be designed where deflection angle found greater
than 5 ̊. The radius of curve (R) is assumed regarding design speed. Easting and Northing of the BM is
assumed. The temporary benchmark is determined using GPS device Survey work was done where
first Reduced Level (RL) was found by GPS, for the vertical control and elevation of the Station was
fixed.

3.5 Data Collection

1) Primary Data
Primary data is information collected through original or first-hand research. The primary
data’s that will be collected during this project is as follows:
a) type of the soil at different chainage
b) buildings at the sites
c) type of crop production
d) reduced level

2) Secondary Data
Secondary data is information which has been collected in the past by someone else but can be
used further for analysis. The commonly used secondary data are as follows:
a) Socio-economic status, geological and demographic data of the area under where survey is
done.
b) Temperature. rainfall, vegetation, climate, of the area

3.6 Engineering Design

The geometric parameters will be adopted following the NRRS- 2071 guideline and chosen on the
basis of comfort, safety and minimal construction and maintenance cost after finalizing the road
classification. The locations of key points of vertical alignment such as beginning of curve, end of
curve, middle of curve, highest and lowest points should be fully defined with respect to the designed
points of vertical intersection.

3.7 Engineering Drawing

The drawing will be prepared using AutoCAD and Smart road software. Smart road is one of the best
tools for plotting the cross-sectional at required interval, plan and profile of the proposed alignment of
the road. This software is very easy for operation. Output this software is obtained in AutoCAD. It is
very popular software for designing the roads. The data obtained from surveying by total station is
entered and analyzed by the software. Then this software gives the output for the longitudinal profile of
existing ground and from this profile: alignment can be fixed with respect to the average maximum
gradient considering the balance of cut/fill volume. After entering co-ordinates, type of drain, slope of
drain, right of ways shoulder width, carriageway, width type of soil, cross-sectional interval scale of
drawing, the output can be achieved in required format for various structure like gabion retaining wall,
gabion breast wall. It also gives the data for horizontal curve and vertical curve in excel sheets. cross
sectional plan and profile of road alignment from AutoCAD can be plotted easily.

29
 Chapter 4
SCHEDULE OF PROJECT

The choice of the topic made for the final year presentation was
unanimously approved by all the group members representing
Topic Choice this project. The topic for the final year project was chosen to be
Detailed Survey, Design & Estimation of Rural Road.

The preparation of proposal of the project is estimated to be

Proposal Preparation completed by....and to be submitted within .

Survey All the necessary data required for the design is be carried out.

The mid-term defense is planned to be completed within the

Mid-Term Defense start

The final defense of the project is planned to be finished within

Final Defense

30
 References

Agor, R., 2015. A Textbook of Sueveying and Levelling. Twelfth ed. Delhi: Khanna
Publisher.
Anon., 2069. Department of Local Infrastructure and Develoment of Agricultural Road
(DoLIDAR), Kathmandu: Government of Nepal.
Anon., 2069. Department of Road (DoR), Kathmandu: Government of Nepal.
Anon., 2070. Nepal Rural Road Standard (NRRS), Kathmandu: Nepal Government.
Choudhari, A. P. L. N., September-2004. A Guide for Thesis Writing (Project Works).
First ed. Kathmandu: Nepal Engineering College .
Dutta, B., April 2012. Estimating and Costing in Civil Engineering. Twenty-Seventh
(Revised) ed. New Delhi: UBS Publishers' Distributors Pvt. Ltd..
K.N. Dulal, E. S. B., 2012. Engineering Hydrology. Second (Revised) ed. Putalisadak,
Kathmandu: APEX Educational Academy (AEA).
Surendra Katwal, R. P., 2073/074. A reference book on TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING-II. First ed. Maitighar,Kathmandu: G.L. Book House Pvt. Ltd..

31