Life Sciences

Grade 12
Paper 1 and 2
Terms and Definitions per
topic.

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Table of Contents
Topic 1: DNA- The Code of Life ............................................................................... 3
Topic 2: Meiosis ........................................................................................................ 4
Topic 3: Reproduction in Vertebrates .................................................................... 6
Topic 4: Human Reproduction ................................................................................ 7
Topic 5: Genetics ..................................................................................................... 9
Topic 6: Human Nervous System and Sense Organs.......................................... 13
Topic 7: Human Endocrine System ....................................................................... 17
Topic 8: Homeostasis in Humans .......................................................................... 19
Topic 9: Plant Response to the Environment ........................................................ 20
Topic 10: Evolution by Natural Selection ............................................................. 21
Topic 11: Human Evolution .................................................................................... 23

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Terminology Review
Topic 1: DNA- The Code of Life

Term: Description:
Anticodon The triplet of bases on tRNA that recognises the
codons on the mRNA strand; forms a base pair with
codons on a strand of mRNA during translation of
mRNA into protein.
Cell cycle The series of processes that take place in a cell
between one cell division and the next.
Central dogma Theory by Watson Crick that states that DNA makes
RNA and RNA makes proteins.
Codon The triplet of three consecutive bases on the mRNA
strand.
Complimentary Nitrogen bases that match each other.
Chromatin Network Tangled network of Chromosomes located within
nucleus.
Chromosomes Long strands, made of DNA and proteins in the
nucleus of a cell, which contain genetic
information.
Cytosine The base that pairs off with guanine.
Deoxyribose sugar Type of sugar found in DNA.
DNA Short for deoxyribonucleic acid, it contains the
instructions used in the development and
functioning of almost all known living organisms; it is
a constituent of chromosomes.
DNA Replication Production of identical copies of DNA.
Double Helix Natural Shape of a DNA molecule, which forms a
spiral ladder-shaped molecule.
Extra-nuclear DNA DNA that only occurs outside the nucleus such as
in the mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Gene Segment of a chromosome that codes for a
particular protein that determine a particular
characteristic in an organism.
Genetic code The way DNA controls the structure and functions
in a cell.
Helicase Enzyme breaking hydrogen bonds between
complementary strands.
Histones Proteins that form part of the chromosome.
Hydrogen Bonds Bonds in which base pairs are linked in DNA.

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Interphase Phase of the cell cycle during which DNA
replication occurs.
Messenger RNA Molecule containing information for protein
(mRNA) synthesis in its codon.
Non-coding DNA Sections of DNA that do not carry a code for
proteins.
Nucleotide Building blocks of DNA consisting of sugar,
phosphate group and nitrogen base.
Nucleus The site of DNA replication and Transcription.
Peptide Bond The bond that forms between two amino acids.
Purine Two carbon ring nitrogen bases(adenine and
guanine).
Pyramidine One carbon nitrogen ring bases (thymine and
cytosine).
Ribosome Site of protein synthesis by the combination of
amino acids.
Ribose sugar The type of sugar found in an RNA molecule.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Molecule containing information for the formation
of ribosomes.
RNA A single stranded nucleic acid.
Template A Strand of DNA used to form either another strand
of DNA or mRNA.
Thymine The base that pairs off with adenine in DNA.
Transcription Transfer of coded messages for protein synthesis
from DNA onto mRNA; occur inside nucleus.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) Molecule containing information for protein
synthesis in its anti-codons.
Translation Process that is part of protein synthesis from the
time amino acids are assembled in a particular
sequence; occur at ribosome in cytoplasm.

Topic 2: Meiosis

Term: Description:
Anaphase I A Phase in Meiosis in which chromosomes are pulled
apart.
Anaphase II A Phase in Meiosis in which chromatids are pulled
apart.
Aneuploidy The presence of an extra chromosome or an
absence of a chromosome in gametes due to non-
disjunction.
Bivalent A pair of homologous chromosomes involved in
crossing over.

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Centrioles Structure that forms spindle threads(fibres) during
meiosis.
Centrosome Structure that splits to form two centrioles in animals’
cells during meiosis.
Chiasma Point of overlap of chromatids of homologous pair of
chromosomes during crossing over.
Crossing over The exchange of genetic materials between
chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
Cytokinesis Division of the cytoplasm.
Diploid Chromosome condition describing the presence of
two sets of chromosomes in each cell.
DNA replication Process whereby a single stranded chromosome
becomes double stranded.
Down Syndrome Genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra
copy of chromosome 21.
Gametes Sex cells, formed during meiosis, that is used in sexual
reproduction, sperm and ova.
Gametogenisis The process of gamete formation during meiosis.
Spermatogenisis in males, oogenisis in females.
Haploid Chromosome condition describing the presence of a
single set of chromosomes in each cell.
Homologous Chromosomes that are identical in shape and
appearance that code for the same set of
characteristics.
Interphase A Phase during which DNA replication takes place.
Karyotype The number and type of chromosomes possed by the
nucleus of an individual.
Lethal Causing death.
Meiosis The type cell division that results in halving of the
(Reduction division) chromosome number, the number of chromosomes
in a cells is reduced by half during this cell division.
Meiosis Cell Division producing daughter cells that are
dissimilar.
Metaphase I A Phase in Meiosis in which chromosomes line up at
the equator in pairs.
Metaphase II A Phase in Meiosis in which chromosomes are
arranged singly(one at atime) at the equator.
Mitosis Cell division producing identical cells.
Non-disjunction Non separation of chromosomes or chromatids
during anaphase I of Meiosis.
Polyploid The presence of an extra ‘set’ of chromosomes or the
absence of chromosomes in gametes due to non-
disjunction.
Prophase I A Phase in Meiosis in which crossing-over occurs.

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Random When pairs of chromosomes separate in no specific
segragation pattern during meiosis so that each daughter cell
contains one chromosome from each pair.
Somatic cells All body cells exept sex cells.
Spindle Structures to which chromosomes are attached
Threads(fibres) during Metaphase I and Metaphase II.
Telophase I A Phase in Meiosis in which ‘two’ cells are formed
having half the chromosome complement as the
original cell.
Telophase II A Phase in Meiosis in which ‘four’ cells are formed
having half the chromosome complement as the
original cell.
Trisomy When a pair of homologous chromosomes has
gained an extra chromosome, giving the cell a
chromosome number of 2n + 1, or three of the same
chromosome.

Topic 3: Reproduction in Vertebrates

Term: Description:
Allantois Structure in a developing embryo used in gas
exchange; a bag that collects waste products from
the embryo inside the amniotic egg, non-functional
in humans.
Altricial Production of offspring that are born helpless,
development unable to walk, unable to move or feed themselves,
must be kept warm by the parent.
Amnion Inner membrane of the embryo containing a fluid
that acts as a shock absorber.
Amniotic egg An egg containing four extra-embryonic
membranes, a shelled egg, which can survive and
develop on land.
Amniotic fluid The fluid surrounding the developing foetus in the
uterus.
Chorion Outer membrane of the embryo that plays a role in
gas exchange.
External fertilisation Fertilisation of the egg cell by a sperm cell outside of
the female body.

Internal Fertilisation Fertilisation of the egg cell by a sperm cell inside the
female reproductive system.

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Motile Able to move actively e.g. a sperm cell.
Ovipary A method of reproduction involving the laying of
eggs which then hatch outside the body of the
female.
Ovovivipary A method of reproduction involving the hatching of
eggs in the female reproductive system.
Parental care The strategy by parents where food and protection
are provided to increase survival of the offspring.
Precocial Production of offspring that are independent, can
development feed and move by themselves, can keep warm
soon after birth.
Reproduction The production of a new generation from an existing
generation.
Reproductive Ways that organisms carry out reproduction.
strategies
Sexual reproduction A form of reproduction that involves the fertilisation
of an egg by a sperm.
Umbilical cord (in A cord of blood vessels that connect the embryo
amniotic egg) with the yolk and the allantois.
Vivipary Younglings are born alive after a period of being
protected and nourished by the placenta in the
body of the mother.
Yolk sac Structure in amniotic eggs that provides nutrition to
the embryo.
Zygote A fertilised egg.

Topic 4: Human Reproduction

Term: Definition:
Acrosome Structure in the sperm cell that contains enzymes used
to penetrate the ovum.
Amniotic Fluid The liquid that surrounds the human embryo.
Blastocyst A hollow ball of cells that develops from a zygote and
embeds in the uterus wall.
Cells of Leydig Specialised cells found between the seminiferous
tubules that produce the hormone testosterone.
Chorion The membrane that forms finger-like projections which
grow into the uterine wall.
Contraception Any procedure that prevents pregnancy.
Copulation The introduction of the penis into the vagina, followed
by the discharge of semen.
Corpus luteum Tissue left behind in ovary when egg is released;
produces progesterone.

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Ejaculation The release of semen and sperm from the male penis.
Embryo Develop form the zygote undergoing mitosis, called an
embryo for first eight weeks after ovulation.
Endometrium The lining of the uterus which is richly supplied with blood
vessels.
Epididymis Coiled tubular structure outside the testis that stores
sperm.
Fallopian tube The part of the female reproductive system in which
fertilisation takes place.
Foetus The name given to an embryo after it reaches 12 weeks,
an embryo of a mammal that has developed organs
and organ systems.
Follicle The hormone produced by the pituitary gland which
Stimulating controls growth of the Graafian Follicle, stimulates the
Hormone (FSH) maturation of germ cells, which form eggs in females
and sperm in males.
Gametogenesis The formation of gametes by meiosis.
Germinal Layer within the ovary that is responsible for ova through
Epithelium meiosis.
Gestation Pregnancy, or being pregnant from fertilisation to birth.
Implantation The process whereby the blastocyst becomes attached
to the uterine wall.
Gestation Another names for the period of pregnancy.
Labour When the muscular wall of the uterus contracts and
relaxes in stages, until the baby is born.
Luteinising The hormone which converts the ruptured follicle into a
hormone (LH) Corpus Luteum, in females it causes ovulation, in males it
stimulates the formation of the male hormone
testosterone.
Meiosis Type of cell division by which sperms are produced.
Menstrual cycle The 28-day reproductive cycle in females which involves
changes in the ovary and uterus.
Menstruation Tearing away of the endometrium lining of the uterine
wall, accompanied by the loss of blood; monthly
hormonal cycle of ovulating women.
Menopause When women stop menstruating usually at 45 to 50 years
of age.
Mitosis Cell division by which the zygote becomes multicellular.
Morula Developmental stage of the embryo consisting of a solid
ball of cells.
Negative When some condition in the body changes and
feedback mechanisms in the body produce the opposite effect.
Oestrogen The hormone which starts the preparation of the lining of
the uterus for attachment of the fertilised ovum,
produces mainly in the ovaries.
Oogenesis Production of ova by meiosis.

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Ovulation Process by which an ovum is released from the ovary in
humans at around day 14.
Oxytocin A hormone that causes the uterus to contract at birth.
Pituitary gland/ Gland in the brain that produces FSH and LH.
Hypophysis
Placenta Combination of embryonic tissue and maternal tissue
responsible for gas exchange, nutrients and excretion.
Progesterone Hormone that maintains pregnancy, produced mainly in
the ovaries.
Prolactin Hormone produced once the baby is born to stimulate
the glands in the mother’s breasts to produce milk.
Postnatal Refers to the time after the baby is born.
Puberty The stage when sexual maturity is reached in males and
females.
Semen A sticky fluid that contains sperm.
Sertoli cells Specialised cells inside the seminiferous tubules which
plays a role in nutrition.
Spermatogenesis Production of spermatozoa by meiosis.
Spermatozoa Sperm or male gametes.
Testosterone Hormone responsible for secondary sexual
characteristics in males and for sperm maturation.
Umbilical cord A hollow, rope-like tube which attaches the embryo to
the placenta.
Umbilical artery The blood vessel that carries nitrogenous waste from the
foetus to the placenta.
Umbilical vein The blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood from the
placenta to the foetus.
Vasectomy An operation performed to sterilise a man; involves
cutting and tying the tubes that lead from the testis, that
is the vas deference is cut to stop sperm leaving the
body.
Vulva External opening of the vagina.

Topic 5: Genetics

Term: Description:
Albinism Genetic Disorder characteristic by non-
production of the pigment melanin.
Alleles Alternative forms of a gene found at the same
locus.
Antigens A substance that, when introduced into the body,
stimulates the production of antibodies; the
proteins on the surface of red blood cells are
examples of antigens.

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 Biotechnology The use of living organisms to produce useful
products.
Chromatin Network Tangled network of chromosomes located within
the nucleus.
Cloning Making one or more genetically identical copies
of individual cells or organisms.
Co-dominance Cross involving alleles of a gene that are equally
dominant, leading to a third phenotype which is
a combination of the other two phenotypes.
Colour blindness A sex-linked disorder that results in the absence of
pigments in some photoreceptors of the eye.
Complete dominance When one allele in the heterozygote is dominant
and produces its effect in the phenotype.
Dihybrid A cross involving two characteristics.
DNA Nucleic acid that is constituent of chromosomes.
DNA Profile Unique pattern formed by the DNA fragments of
(“DNA-fingerprint”) an individual.
Dominant Allele that influences the phenotype whether in
the homozygous of heterozygous.
Down Syndrome A disorder caused by the presence of an extra
copy of chromosome 21.
Frameshift Mutation A gene mutation caused by the addition or
deletion of a base pair.
Forensics The use of science and technology to investigate
a crime.
Gene Segment of chromosome that codes for a
particular protein.
Genetic Modification Manipulation of the genotype of an organism to
produce desirable characteristics.
Genotype The allele of a gene that an individual possesses
for a particular characteristic. The genetic make-
up of an organism.
Gonosomes Chromosomes that determine the sex of an
organism (XX in females and XY in males).
Haemophilia Sex-linked disorder characterised by the absence
of blood clotting factors.
Heterozygous Individual with two different alleles for a particular
(“Hybrid”) characteristic found at the same locus.
Homozygous Individual with two copies of the same allele for a
(“Purebred”) particular characteristic.
Human genome The mapping of the exact position of all genes in
all the chromosomes of a human.
Incomplete Genetic cross involving alleles that are neither
Dominance dominant nor recessive, leading to an
intermediate phenotype.

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 Independent The movement of alleles for a characteristic into
assortment different gametes independently of the alleles for
other characteristics.
Lethal allele An allele that has a damaging effect on the
body, eventually resulting in the death of an
organism.
Linked alleles Alleles on the same chromosome.
Locus (plural: loci) Position of a gene on a chromosome.
Mendel The scientist who proposed the principle of
independent assortment.
Mitochondrial DNA The DNA found in mitochondria.
(mtDNA)
Monohybrid A cross involving a single characteristic.
Multiple alleles More than two alleles at the same locus influence
a single characteristic.
Mutation Sudden change in the structure of a gene.
Pedigree diagram A representation that traces the transmission of a
(“Family tree”) characteristic over many generations of a family.
Phenotype The external/physical appearance of an
organism.
Phylogenetic tree A relationship tree that shows the probable
evolutionary paths of different groups of
organisms.
Point mutation A gene mutation caused by the substitution of a
base pair.
Punnett square A diagram that is used to predict an outcome of
crossing different alleles in genetics.
Recessive Allele that influences the phenotype only when in
that homozygous combination but not in the
heterozygous condition.
Sex-linked Characteristics controlled by alleles of gene that
characteristics are located on the sex chromosomes.
Sickle-cell anaemia Disorder caused by point of mutation leading to
abnormally shaped red blood cells.
Stem cells Undifferentiated cells that can form any other cell
type in an organism by means of mitosis and
differentiation.
X chromosome The sex chromosome in females (XX) and males
(one X/ XY).
Y chromosome The very short chromosome in males only.

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Mendel’s Law of Dominance:
When two homozygous organisms with contrasting characteristics are
crossed, all the individuals in the F1 generation will display the dominant trait.
An individual that is heterozygous for a particular characteristic, will have the
dominant trait as the phenotype.

Mendel’s Principle of Segregation:

With regards to Dihybrid crosses:

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Topic 6: Human Nervous System and Sense Organs

Term: Description:
Accommodation The ability of the lens of the eye to alter its shape to
allow you to focus on nearby objects or objects that
are far away.
Afferent neurons Nerves that carry nerve impulses to the central
nervous system from the receptors or organs that
receive information.
Alzheimer’s disease Disease caused by nerve defects usually in older
people and characterised by memory loss and
confusion; a progressive degenerative disease of the
brain that leads to dementia.
Aqueous humour The watery fluid that supports the cornea and the
front chamber of the eye.
Astigmatism Eye defects caused by an uneven corneal surface,
resulting in blurry vision.
Auditory nerve Nerve transmitting impulses from ear to the brain.
Autonomic nervous The system that controls involuntary muscles and
system (ANS) regulates the activity of certain glands; made up of
the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
system.
Binocular vision The use of two eyes to form an image, giving a wider
field of vision.
Blind-spot An area in the retina that does not contain
photoreceptors and therefore cannot form an
image.
Cataract Cloudy, opaque portion in the lens of the eye.
Cell body The part of a neuron containing the nucleus.
Central Nervous The nervous system is made up of the brain and
System spinal cord.
(CNS)
Cerebellum The part of the brain, that lies below the cerebrum,
which co-ordinates voluntary actions and is
responsible for balance and to maintain posture.
Cerebrum The largest part of the brain, determines emotions,
personality, intelligence, problem solving and
speech; interprets sensory impulses such as light,
sound and touch; controls voluntary muscular
movement.
Choroid A pigmented middle layer of the eye which absorbs
light and prevents its reflection; it contains may blood
vessels.

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 Ciliary muscles Muscles that contract or relax to change the shape
of the lens in the eye.
Cones Receptor cells, sensitive to colour, found in retina of
the eye.
Conjunctiva Protective membrane situated over the cornea of
the eye.
Cornea Transparent part of the sclera in the front of the eye.
Corpus callosum A mass of white matter, or thick band of nerve fibres
that connects the left and the right hemispheres of
the cerebrum.
Cristae Receptors in the semi-circular canals of the ear that
are sensitive to speed and direction.
Dementia A decline in intellectual functioning of the brain,
including memory, reasoning and thinking.
Dendrites Extensions of a neuron; fibres that transmit impulses to
a cell body.
Dopamine A neurotransmitter that is formed in the CNS and is
important in regulating behaviour, motor activity,
motivation and reward, sleep, mood and learning.
Effector Structure that responds to a stimulus received by a
receptor/sense organ.
Efferent neurons Nerves that carry nerve impulses away from the CNS
and towards effectors, which are muscles or glands.
Endoneurium A layer of delicate connective tissue inside a nerve
(study with that surrounds the bundle of neurons.
perineurium and
epineurium)
Epineurium A layer of connective tissue that surrounds a nerve.
(study with
perineurium and
endoneurium)
Eustachian tube The tube which connects to the middle ear to the
pharynx.
Exteroceptors Receptors that are stimulated by stimuli in the
external environment.
Grey matter The outer layer of the brain, which is greyish nervous
tissue that mostly contains cell bodies.
Grommet A small tube inserted into the tympanic membrane to
allow air to pass into the middle ear; the grommet
helps to prevent frequent ear infections and also to
prevent the eardrum from bursting if there is an
infection.
Interneuron Neuron that transmits impulses from the sensory
neuron to the motor neuron.
Interoceptors Receptors that are stimulated by internal stimuli in the
body.

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 Iris The part of the eye, which is coloured black, brown,
green, grey or blue.
Lens Part of the refracting mechanism of the eye that lies
just behind the pupil; it divides the inside of the
eyeball into the anterior and posterior cavity.
Long-sightedness The ability to see objects far away clearly, but not
objects close by.
Maculae Receptors in the sacculus and utriculus of the ear that
are sensitive to the position of the body.
Medulla oblongata The lowest part of the brain stem, responsible for
involuntary actions such as breathing, blood pressure,
heart rate, dilation and constriction of blood vessels;
it is where nerve fibres cross over- the left side of the
brain controls the right side of the body and vice
versa.
Meninges Three protective membranes surrounding the central
nervous system.
Motor neuron Neuron that transmits impulses from the central
nervous system to the receptors.
Multiple Sclerosis Disease caused by damage to the myelin sheath of
(MS) neurons and is characterised by physical and mental
disabilities.
Myelin Sheath Fatty structure that insulates a neuron in order to
speed up the transmission of impulses.
Neuron The structural unit of nervous systems.
(Nerve cell)
Neurilemma A membrane that plays an important role in repairing
a damaged neuron.
Neurotransmitters A chemical released from a nerve cell which
transmits an impulse from one neuron to the next.
Nodes of Ranvier Gaps between the Schwann cells that speed up the
nerve impulses.
Optic Nerve Nerve transmitting impulses from the eye to the brain.
Organ of Corti The structure within the cochlea, responsible for
picking up the stimulus of sound and convert it to
nerve impulses.
Paralysis The loss of the ability to move.
Parasympathetic Controls activities that decrease the amount of
nervous system energy we use; part of the autonomic nervous system
that controls activities which return the body to
normal, causing a ‘rest-and-digest’ response.
Perineurium A layer of connective tissue that encloses each
(study with bundle of nerve cells or neurons.
Epineurium and
endoneurium)

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 Peripheral nervous Nerves linking receptor and effector organs to the
system brain and spinal cord, made up of sensory and motor
nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
Photoreceptors Convert light into nerve impulses.
Pupillary Changes that occur in the diameter of the pupil
mechanism (Pupil under different light conditions.
reflex)
Radial muscles The iris muscles that contracts in dim light.
Receptor Structure that receives a stimulus and converts it into
an impulse for transmission.
Reflex action A rapid, automatic (involuntary) response of a muscle
or gland due to an external stimulus.
Reflex arc Neuron pathway taken by an impulse from a
receptor to an effector during a reflex action.
Retina Light-sensitive layer of the eye containing
photoreceptors and where images are formed.
Rods Photoreceptors in the retina that are stimulated
under dim-light conditions and allow us to see black
and white images.
Schwann cells Cells that wrap themselves around the axon and
nourish the neuron; the inner layers of the Schwann
cells fuse to form the myelin sheath.
Sclera The outer layer of the eye that consists of tough,
inelastic tissue; it maintains the shape of the eyeball
and is a point where the eye muscles attach.
Sensory neuron Neuron that transmits impulses from the sense organs
to the central nervous systems.
Serotonin A neurotransmitter that is formed in the CNS and is
involved in sleep, aggression, eating, sexual
behaviour, depression and body temperature.
Short-sightedness The ability to see objects close by, but not far away.
Somatic nervous The system that receives information from receptors
system and controls voluntary skeletal muscle responses.
Spinal cord The major column of nerve tissue that is connected to
the brain and lies within the vertebral column;
connects most of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
to the brain as nerve impulses travel along the spinal
cord to and from the brain; responsible for simple
reflexes.
Stem cells Cells that are capable of dividing and differentiating
into almost any of the cell types in the human body.
Suspensory Structures that hold the lens of the eye in position.
Ligaments

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 Sympathetic Controls activities that increase the amount of energy
nervous system we use; part of the autonomic nervous system that
controls activities which prepare the body for ‘fight or
flight’.
Synapse The physiological connection/ a tiny gap between
the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another.
Synaptic knob The end of the axon where the neurotransmitters are
produced.
Ventricles Hollow spaces or chambers inside the brain, which
are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Vitreous humour The gel-like fluid that fills the space between the lense
and the retina.
White matter The inner section of the brain and outer section of the
spinal cord, which is paler tissue and consists mostly of
axons covered by white myelin sheaths.
Yellow spot Area of the retina with the highest concentration of
cones.
Yellow spot Area in the retina that contains the highest number of
cones and therefore forms a clearer picture.

Topic 7: Human Endocrine System

Term: Description:
Acromegaly Abnormal enlargement of the extremities of the
skeleton (nose, jaws, fingers and toes) caused by
too much growth hormone in adults
Antidiuretic Hormone secreted by the hypothalamus that
Hormone(ADH) controls the reabsorption of water in the kidneys.
Adrenal glands Endocrine glands that secrete the hormones
adrenalin and aldosterone.
Adrenalin Hormone that increases heartbeat and blood
pressure in emergency situations in the ‘fight-or-
flight’ response; it prepares the body for action.
Aldosterone A hormone that increases the reabsorption of ions
and water in the kidney.
Diabetes Condition caused by the absence of insulin or
through ineffective insulin secretion; characterised
by an unusually high level of blood glucose.
Dwarfism A condition caused by too little growth hormone.
Endocrine glands Glands that pour their secretions directly into the
blood stream.

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 Endocrine system System of the body composed of glands that
secrete hormones responsible for chemical
coordination.
Excretion When the body release a harmful waste product
such as carbon dioxide and urea.
Exocrine gland Produces secretions that are carried in ducts to
specific locations.
Gonads The sex glands.
Gigantism A condition caused by too much growth hormone.
Glucagon Pancreatic hormone that increases blood sugar
level when it is too low; it stimulates the liver to
convert stored glycogen into glucose and release it
into the bloodstream.
Goitre An enlarged thyroid gland.
Growth hormone Hormone that controls normal growth and
development.
Hormone Secretions produced in small quantities by the
endocrine glands.
Insulin A hormone that the pancreas secretes when the
blood sugar or glucose levels are high, causing the
blood sugar level to drop.
Islets of Langerhans Groups of endocrine cells found in the pancreas,
which secrete the hormone insulin and glucagon
directly into the blood to regulate blood sugar
levels.
Pancreas A large gland that lies behind the stomach in the
abdomen.
Pituitary/Hypophysis The major endocrine gland at the base of the brain.
Gland that produces Follicle Stimulating Hormone
(FSH) and Luteinising Hormone (LH).
Prolactin A that hormone produced by the pituitary gland
that stimulates milk production.
Hyperthyroidism A condition caused by an overactive thyroid gland.
Hypothyroidism A condition caused by an underactive thyroid.
Hypothalamus Part of the brain to which the hypophysis (pituitary
gland) is attached; links the nervous system to the
endocrine system via the hypophysis (pituitary
gland).
Insulin Hormone that promotes absorption of glucose into
cells.
Kidneys Organ on which the Adrenal gland are located.
Negative feedback Interaction between two endocrine glands, where
the change in hormonal production of one is
referred back to it, resulting in the opposite
response.
Oestrogen Hormone produced by the Graafian follicle.

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 Osmoregulation The process in which antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
and aldosterone work together to control the levels
of water and mineral salts in the blood.
Oxytocin Hormone responsible for stimulating childbirth.
Progesterone Hormone produced by the corpus luteum.
Prolactin Hormone responsible for stimulating milk production.
Secretion When the body release a useful substance e.g.,
digestive juices or a hormone.
Target organ Specific groups of cells, glands or organs where
hormones act.
Testosterone Hormone responsible for secondary sexual
characteristics in males.
Thyroid gland A butterfly-shaped endocrine gland, which lies in
front of the trachea and releases the hormone
thyroxin.
Thyroxin Hormone that controls the metabolic rate of cells.
Thyroid Stimulating A hormone which stimulates secretion of thyroxin by
Hormone (TSH) the thyroid gland.
Type I diabetes A type of diabetes that is mostly diagnosed in
children and young adults; it is caused by little or no
insulin production because the insulin-producing
cells in the Islets of Langerhans are destroyed.
Type II diabetes A type of diabetes that is more common in older
people because their body cells do not respond
properly to insulin, which affects absorption of
glucose into cells.

Topic 8: Homeostasis in Humans

Term: Definition:
Antidiuretic Hormone that is responsible for the reabsorption
Hormone(ADH) of water in the kidneys tubules.
Adrenal gland The gland responsible for the secretion of
Adrenalin.
Aldosterone The hormone responsible for regulating the level
of salt in the blood.
Carbon dioxide A gas that stimulates change in the breathing
rate and heart rate.
Diabetes Mellitus Disease that results in the shortage of insulin or
poor quality of insulin.
Homeostasis The maintenance of a constant internal
environment in the body, with narrow limits.
Hypothalamus The part of the brain that controls body
temperature.

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 Insulin The hormone that reduces the blood glucose.
Medulla Oblongata A part of the brain that is stimulated by changes
in the CO2 concentration in the blood.
Negative Feedback The mechanism used to oppose an imbalance
Mechanism when conditions in the tissue fluid rises or fall
below normal levels.
Osmoregulation Control of the level of water in the body.
Pituitary The gland responsible for the secretion of ADH.
Sweat glands The glands that help regulate the body
temperature through the production of sweat.
Thermoregulation The processes responsible for regulating the body
temperature to keep a fairly constant body
temperature.
Tissue fluid The tissue that bathes the cells of the body.
Vasoconstriction A decrease in the internal diameter of blood
vessels/ narrowing of blood vessels which
decreases blood flow.
Vasodilation An increase in the internal diameter of blood
vessels/ widening of blood vessels which increases
blood flow.

Topic 9: Plant Response to the Environment

Term: Description:
Abscisic acid Plant growth hormone/substance that is
responsible for bringing about dormancy in seeds;
in autumn it slows down or stops plant growth.
Apical Dominance Inhibition of growth of lateral buds by the auxins
present in apical buds.
Auxins Plant growth hormone/substance that causes
bending reactions in plant stems and roots by
causing the cells to grow longer.
Browsers Animals that eat the leaves and twigs of trees.
Geotropism Growth or bending reaction by plants in response
to gravity.
Gibberellins Plant growth hormone/substance that is
responsible for elongation of internodes in plants
by stimulating cell division.
Herbicide A chemical substance that kills plants.
Phototropism Growth or bending reaction by plants in response
to light.

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 Plant hormone A chemical substance that helps to coordinate
the growth, metabolism or development of the
plant.
Thorns/spikes Sharp structures found in plants for protection
from herbivores.
Tropism Bending reaction of plants or parts of plants in
response to an external stimulus.

Topic 10: Evolution by Natural Selection

Term: Description:
Acquired traits Characteristics that are developed over the
lifetime of the organisms, for example, large leg
muscles in athletes.
Allopatric speciation Speciation due to a geographical barrier.
Analogous Structures that are different or do not have a
common origin but perform the same function.
Artificial Selection The production of offspring that have
(selective breeding) characteristics that are suitable and beneficial to
humans, purposefully breeding organisms for
certain traits.
Biodiversity The range of life forms that exist on Earth.
Biogeography Similarities and differences in organisms due to
their location on the Earth. The study of past and
present-day distribution of living organisms across
continenets.
Continuous variation A range of phenotypes that exist for a particular
characteristic.
Convergent evolution When organisms that are not closely related
evolve similar adaptations independently.
Discontinuous variation There is no range of different phenotypes for a
characteristic; it is usually present or absent.
Evolution Descent with modification over time.
OR
A process by which new types of organisms
develop from other existing types of organisms.
Extant Species that are still living today.
Extinction Elimination of a species from the Earth.
Fossil The remains of organisms that have existed in the
past.
Gene pool All the genes and their different alleles present in
a population of a particular species.
Geographic isolation The separation and isolates of a population into
two by a geographical barrier such as a lake, a
river or a mountain.

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 Geographical barrier A feature of the land such as a river, a lake, or a
mountain which may separate a population into
two.
Geologist Scientist who studies the Earth’s structure.
Homologous Structures that are similar or have a common
origin but perform different functions.
Hybridisation When two genetically different parents’ mate
and produce offspring.
Hybrid sterility When two species interbreed to form sterile
offspring.
Hypothesis A testable statement that can be accepted or
rejected.
Lamark The scientist who argued that acquired
characteristics obtained by the parents, could be
passed on to their offspring.
Marsupials Mammals in which the young are born at a very
immature stage and then move to the abdominal
pouch of the mother to feed and develop.
Mutation A sudden change the structure of a gene or
chromosome.
Natural Selection Organisms survive if they have characteristics that
make them adapt to the environment and
reproduce.
Palaeontology The study of fossils.
Phylogenetic tree A branching diagram showing the possible
(Cladogram) evolutionary relationship.
Population Group of organisms of the same species
occupying the same habitat.
Punctuated equilibrium Evolution characterised by long periods of little or
no change followed by short periods of rapid
change.
Radiometric dating Process used to determine the age of a fossil by
measuring the decay of radioactive substances
such as carbon.
Relative dating. Process used to determine the order in which
organisms appeared on Earth.
Selection pressure Environmental factors that determine whether an
organism has suitable variations to survive.
Speciation The formation of a new species over a period of
time.
Species Similar organisms capable of random
interbreeding to fertile offspring.
Theory Based on a number of different hypotheses,
explanations, principles and laws.
Variation Differences among organisms of the same
species.

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 Vestigial structures Small, poorly developed structures that are
inherited from a common ancestor but have no
real use, for example the human appendix.

Topic 11: Human Evolution

Term: Description:
Anatomy The structure or parts of the body.
Australopithecus The genus of the fossil ‘Little Foot’.
Bipedalism The act of walking upright on two feet.
Cultural evidence The type of evidence for human evolution that
includes tool making.
Dentation Arrangement of teeth on a jaw.
Foramen Magnum Opening in the base of the skull through which
the spinal cord enters.
Genus A group of closely related species.
For example, the genus Canis –which is Latin for
“dog” includes all breeds of dogs, coyotes,
jackals and wolves.
Hominid Order to which humans, chimps, apes, gorillas,
lemurs and gibbons belong.
Hominin Modern humans and all our immediate ancestors
(including members of the genera Homo,
Australopithecus, Ardipithecus).
Hypothesis A testable statement that can be accepted or
rejected.
Limestone Rock containing mainly calcium carbonate.
Fossils are often found in limestone.
Mitochondrial DNA Genetic material used to trace female ancestry.
Mutation Sudden change to the structure of a gene or a
chromosome.
Opposable thumb A thumb that works in the opposite direction to
the fingers. Digits such as thumb and forefinger,
can be used to make a pincer grip for holding
things.
Palate The roof of the mouth.
Phylogenetic tree Diagram showing evolutionary relationships
amongst other organisms.
Prognathism The scientific name for a protruding jaw.
Quadripedalism The act of walking on all four limbs.
Stereoscopic vision Type of vision shared by apes and humans that
allows for the death of perception.
Binocular vision Type of vision that results from having two eyes.

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 Theory Based on a number of different hypotheses,
explanations, principles and laws.
Transitional fossil Fossil having characteristics of species that arose
before it as well as well as species that arose after
it.

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