CE 311B - HYDRAULICS 1

Module 1

ENGR. JUDY-ANN A. ESCUÑA

INSTRUCTOR
 TABLE F.1 FORMULAS FOR UNIT CONVERSIONS*
Name, Symbol, Dimensions Conversion Formula
Length L L 1 m = 3.281 ft = 1.094 yd = 39.37 in = km  1000 = 106 µm
1 ft = 0.3048 m = 12 in = mile  5280 = km  3281
1 mm = m  1000 = in  25.4 = 39.37 mil = 1000 µm = 107 Å
Speed V LT 1 m  s = 3.600 km  hr = 3.281 ft  s = 2.237 mph = 1.944 knots
1 ft  s = 0.3048 m  s = 0.6818 mph = 1.097 km  hr = 0.5925 knots
Mass m M 1 kg = 2.205 lbm = 1000 g = slug  14.59 = (metric ton or tonne or Mg)  1000
1 lbm = lbf·s2  (32.17ft) = kg  2.205 = slug  32.17 = 453.6 g
= 16 oz = 7000 grains = short ton  2000 = metric ton (tonne)  2205
Density p M  L3 1000 kg  m3 = 62.43 lbm  ft3 = 1.940 slug  ft3 = 8.345 lbm  gal (US)
Force F ML  T 2 1 lbf = 4.448 N = 32.17 lbm·ft  s2
1 N = kg·m  s2 = 0.2248 lbf = 105 dyne
Pressure P M  LT 2 1 Pa = N  m2 = kg  m · s2 = 10–5 bar = 1.450  10–4 lbf  in2 = inch H2O  249.1
= 0.007501 torr = 10.00 dyne  cm2
1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 2116 psf = 1.013 bar = 14.70 lbf  in2 = 33.90 ft of water
= 29.92 in of mercury = 10.33 m of water = 760 mm of mercury = 760 torr
1 psi = atm  14.70 = 6.895 kPa = 27.68 in H2O = 51.71 torr
Volume V L3 1 m3 = 35.31 ft3 = 1000 L = 264.2 U.S. gal
1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3 = 28.32 L = 7.481 U.S. gal = acre-ft  43,560
1 U.S. gal = 231 in3 = barrel (petroleum)  42 = 4 U.S. quarts = 8 U.S. pints
= 3.785 L = 0.003785 m3
Volume Flow Q L3  T 1 m3  s = 35.31 ft3  s = 2119 cfm = 264.2 gal (US)  s = 15850 gal (US)/m
Rate
1 cfs = 1 ft3  s = 28.32 L  s = 7.481 gal (US)  s = 448.8 gal (US)  m
(Discharge)
Mass Flow m· MT 1 kg  s = 2.205 lbm  s = 0.06852 slug  s
Rate
Energy and E, W ML2  T 2 1 J = kg·m2  s2 = N·m = W·s = volt·coulomb = 0.7376 ft·lbf
Work = 9.478  10–4 Btu = 0.2388 cal = 107 erg = kWh  3.600  106
· ·
Power P  ML2  T 3 1 W = J  s = N·m  s = kg·m2  s3 = 1.341  10–3 hp
E W
= 0.7376 ft · lbf  s = 1.0 volt-ampere = 0.2388 cal  s = 9.478  10–4 Btu  s
1 hp = 0.7457 kW = 550 ft·lbf  s = 33,000 ft·lbf  min = 2544 Btu  h
Angular Speed ω T –1 1.0 rad  s = 9.549 rpm = 0.1591 rev  s
Viscosity μ M  LT 1 Pa·s = kg  m·s = N·s  m2 = 10 poise = 0.02089 lbf·s  ft2 = 0.6720 lbm  ft·s
Kinematic v L2 T 1 m2  s = 10.76 ft2  s = 106 cSt
Viscosity
Temperature T  K = °C + 273.15 = °R  1.8
°C = (°F – 32)  1.8
°R = °F + 459.67 = 1.8 K
°F = 1.8°C + 32
* A useful online reference is www.onlineconversion.com
 TABLE F.3 USEFUL CONSTANTS
Name of Constant Value

Acceleration of gravity
Universal gas constant Ru = 8.314 kJ  kmol · K = 1545 ft · lbf  lbmol · °R
Standard atmospheric pressure

TABLE F.4 PROPERTIES OF AIR [T = 20oC (68 oF), p = 1 atm]

Property SI Units Traditional Units

Specific gas constant Rair = 287.0 J  kg · K Rair = 1716 ft · lbf  slug · °R

Density p = 1.20 kg  m3 p = 0.0752 lbm  ft3 = 0.00234 slug  ft3
Specific weight γ = 11.8 N  m3 γ = 0.0752 lbf  ft3
Viscosity µ = 1.81  10–5 N · s  m2 µ = 3.81  10–7 lbf · s  ft2
Kinematic viscosity v = 1.51  10–5 m2  s v = 1.63  10–4 ft2  s
Specific heat ratio k = cp  cv = 1.40 k = cp  cv = 1.40
Specific heat cp = 1004 J  kg · K cp = 0.241 Btu  lbm · °R
Speed of sound c = 343 m  s c = 1130 ft  s

TABLE F.5 PROPERTIES OF WATER [T = 15oC (59 oF), p = 1 atm]

Property SI Units Traditional Units
Density p = 999 kg  m3 p = 62.4 lbm  ft3 = 1.94 slug  ft3
Specific weight γ = 9800 N  m3 γ = 62.4 lbf  ft3
Viscosity µ = 1.14  10–3 N · s  m2 µ = 2.38  10–5 lbf · s  ft2
Kinematic viscosity v = 1.14  10–6 m2  s v = 1.23  10–5 ft2  s
Surface tension σ = 0.073 N  m σ = 0.0050 lbf  ft
(water-air)

Bulk modulus of elasticity Ev = 2.14  10 Pa

9 E = 3.10  10 5 psi
v

TABLE F.6 PROPERTIES OF WATER [T = 4oC (39 oF), p = 1 atm]

Property SI Units Traditional Units
Density 1000 kg  m3 62.4 lbm  ft3 = 1.94 slug  ft3
Specific weight 9810 N  m3 62.4 lbf  ft3
Liquids and Gases
Liquids and gases differ because of forces between the molecules. As shown in the first row of Table 1.1, a liquid will take
the shape of a container whereas a gas will expand to fill a closed container. The behavior of the liquid is produced by strong
attractive force between the molecules. This strong attractive force also explains why the density of a liquid is much higher
than the density of gas (see the fourth row). The attributes in Table 1.1 can be generalized by defining a gas and liquid based
on the differences in the attractive forces between molecules. A gas is a phase of material in which molecules are widely
spaced, molecules move about freely, and forces between molecules are minuscule, except during collisions. Alternatively, a
liquid is a phase of material in which molecules are closely spaced, molecules move about freely, and there are strong
attractive forces between molecules.

Table 1.1 COMPARISON OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES

Attribute Solid Liquid Gas

Typical Visualization

Macroscopic Solids hold their shape; no need Liquids take the shape of the Gases expand to fill a closed
Description for a container container and will stay in open container
container
Mobility of Molecules Molecules have low mobility Liquids typically flow easily even Molecules move around freely
because they are bound in a though there are strong intermolecular with little interaction except
structure by strong forces between molecules during collisions; this is why
intermolecular forces gases expand to fill their container
Typical Density Often high; e.g., density of steel Medium; e.g., density of water is Small; e.g., density of air at sea
is 7700 kg  m3 1000 kg  m3 level is 1.2 kg  m3
Molecular Spacing Small—molecules are close Small—molecules are held close Large—on average, molecules are
together together by intermolecular forces far apart

Effect of Shear Stress Produces deformation Produces flow Produces flow

Effect of Normal Stress Produces deformation that may Produces deformation associated with Produces deformation associated
associate with volume change; volume change with volume change
can cause failure
Viscosity NA High; decreases as temperature Low; increases as temperature
increases increases
Compressibility Difficult to compress; bulk Difficult to compress; bulk modulus Easy to compress; bulk modulus
modulus of steel is 160  109 Pa of liquid water is 2.2  109 Pa of a gas at room conditions is
about 1.0  105 Pa

Dimensions, Units, and Resources

Dimensions
A dimension is a category that represents a physical quantity such as mass, length, time, momentum, force, acceleration, and
energy. To simplify matters, engineers express dimensions using a limited set that are called primary dimensions. Table 1.2
lists one common set of primary dimensions.
Secondary dimensions such as momentum and energy can be related to primary dimensions by using equations. For
example, the secondary dimension “force” is expressed in primary dimensions by using Newton’s second law of motion, F
= ma.
Units
While a dimension expresses a specific type of physical quantity, a unit assigns a number so that the dimension can be
measured. For example, measurement of volume (a dimension) can be expressed using units of liters. Similarly, measurement
of energy (a dimension) can be expressed using units of joules. Most dimensions have multiple units that are used for
measurement. For example, the dimension of “force” can be expressed using units of newtons, pounds-force, or dynes.

Unit Systems
In practice, there are several unit systems in use. The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French “Le
Système International d'Unités”) is based on the meter, kilogram, and second.

Table 1.2 PRIMARY DIMENSIONS

Dimension Symbol Unit (SI)
Length L meter (m)
Mass M kilogram (kg)
Time T second (s)
Temperature θ kelvin (K)
Electric current i ampere (A)
Amount of light C candela (cd)
Amount of matter N mole (mol)

Applications and Connections

Hydraulics is the study of the flow of water through pipes, rivers, and open-channels. Hydraulics includes pumps and
turbines and applications such as hydropower. Hydraulics is important for ecology, policymaking, energy production,
recreation, fish and game resources, and water supply.
Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the earth. Hydrology involves the
hydraulic cycle and water resource issues. Thus, hydrology provides results that are useful for environmental engineering
and for policymaking. Hydrology is important nowadays because of global challenges in providing water for hu- man
societies.
Aerodynamics is the study of air flow. Topics include lift and drag on objects (e.g., air- planes, automobiles, birds), shock waves
associated with flow around a rocket, and the flow through a supersonic or deLaval nozzle. Aerodynamics is important for the
design of vehi- cles, for energy conservation, and for understanding nature.
Bio-fluid mechanics is an emerging field that includes the study of the lungs and circulatory system, blood flow, micro-
circulation, and lymph flow. Bio-fluids also includes development of artificial heart valves, stents, vein and dialysis shunts,
and artificial organs. Bio-fluid mechanics is important for advancing health care.
Acoustics is the study of sound. Topics include production, control, transmission, reception of sound, and physiological effects of
sound. Since sound waves are pressure waves in fluids, acoustics is related to fluid mechanics. In addition, water hammer in a
piping system, which in- volves pressure waves in liquids, involves some of the same knowledge that is used in acoustics.
Microchannel flow is an emerging area that involves the study of flow in tiny pas- sages. The typical size of a
microchannel is a diameter in the range of 10 to 200 micrometers. Applications that involve microchannels include
microelectronics, fuel cell systems, and advanced heat sink designs.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is the application of numerical methods implemented on computers to model and solve
problems that involve fluid flows. Computers per- form millions of calculations per second to simulate fluid flow. Examples
of flows that are modeled by CFD include water flow in a river, blood flow in the abdominal aorta, and air flow around an
automobile.
Petroleum engineering is the application of engineering to the exploration and pro- duction of petroleum. Movement of oil in
the ground involves flow through a porous medium. Petroleum extraction involves flow of oil through passages in wells. Oil
pipelines involve pumps and conduit flow.
Atmospheric science is the study of the atmosphere, its processes, and the interaction of the atmosphere with other systems.
Fluid mechanics topics include flow of the atmosphere and applications of CFD to atmospheric modeling. Atmospheric science
is important for predicting weather and is relevant to current issues including acid rain, photochemical smog, and global
warming.
Electrical engineering problems can involve knowledge from fluid mechanics. For example, fluid mechanics is involved in the
flow of solder during a manufacturing process, the cooling of a microprocessor by a fan, sizing of motors to operate pumps,
and the production of electrical power by wind turbines.
Environmental engineering involves the application of science to protect or improve the environment (air, water, and  or land
resources) or to remediate polluted sites. Environ- mental engineers design water supply and wastewater treatment systems for
communities. Environmental engineers are concerned with local and worldwide environmental issues such as acid rain, ozone
depletion, water pollution, and air pollution.

FLUID PROPERTIES

Properties Involving Mass and Weight

Mass and weight properties are needed for most problems in fluid mechanics, including the flow of ground water in aquifers
and the pressure acting on a scuba diver or an underwater structure.

Mass Density, p
Mass density is defined as the ratio of mass to volume at a point, given by
𝜌 = 𝑚/𝑉
Specific Weight, γ
The gravitational force per unit volume of fluid, or simply the weight per unit volume, is de- fined as specific weight. It is
given the Greek symbol γ (gamma). Water at 20°C has a specific weight of 9790 N  m3 (or 62.4 lbf  ft3 at 50°F). In contrast,
the specific weight of air at 20°C and standard atmospheric pressure is 11.8 N  m3. Specific weight and density are related
by
γ = pg

Variation in Liquid Density

In practice, engineers need to decide whether or not to model a fluid as constant density or variable density. Usually, a liquid
such as water requires a large change in pressure in order to change the density. Thus, for most applications, liquids can be
considered incompressible and can be assumed to have constant density. An exception to this occurs when different
solutions, such as saline and fresh water, are mixed. A mixture of salt in water changes the density of the water without
changing its volume. Therefore in some flows, such as in estuaries, density variations may occur within the flow field even
though the fluid is essentially incompressible. A fluid wherein density varies spatially is described as nonhomogeneous. This
text emphasizes the flow of homogeneous fluids, so the term incompressible, used throughout the text, implies constant
density.

Specific Gravity, S
The ratio of the specific weight of a given fluid to the specific weight of water at the standard reference temperature 4°C is
defined as specific gravity, S:
γfluid pfluid
S = ------------ = ------------
γwater pwater

The specific weight of water at atmospheric pressure is 9790 N  m3. The specific gravity of mercury at 20°C is
133 kN/m3
SHg = ---------------3= 13.6
9.79 kN/m
Because specific gravity is a ratio of specific weights, it is dimensionless and therefore independent of the system of units
used.
Ideal Gas Law
The ideal gas law relates important thermodynamic properties, and is often used to calculate density.
One form of the law is
pV = nRu T

EXAMPLE 2.1 DENSITY OF AIR Solution

Air at standard sea-level pressure (p 101 kN  m ) has a
2
-----
temperature of 4°C. What is the density of the air? RT
Problem Definition 101  103 N  m2 3
p
Situation: Air with a known temperature and pressure. 287 J  kg K  (273 + 4) K
Find: Density (kg  m3). Review
Properties: Air, 4°C, p at 101 kN  m2; Table A.2,
Remember: Use absolute temperatures and pressures with
the ideal gas law.
Plan Remember: In Eq. (2.5), use R from Table A.2. Do not use
Ru.
Apply the ideal gas law, Eq. (2.5), to solve for density, p.

where p is the absolute pressure, V is the volume, n is the number of moles, Ru is the universal gas constant (the same for
all gases), and T is absolute temperature.

Viscosity
The property of viscosity is important to engineering practice because it leads to significant
energy loss when moving fluids contact a solid boundary, or when different zones of fluid are
flowing at different velocities.

Viscosity, µ
Viscosity (also called dynamic viscosity, or absolute viscosity) is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to deformation under shear
stress. For example, crude oil has a higher resistance to shear than does water. Crude oil will pour more slowly than water
from an identical beaker held at the same angle. This relative slowness of the oil implies a low “speed” or rate of strain. The
symbol used to represent viscosity is µ (mu). To understand the physics of viscosity, it is useful to refer back to solid
mechanics and the concepts of shear stress and shear strain. Shear stress, τ, tau, is the ratio of force/area on a surface when
the force is aligned parallel to the area. Shear strain is a change in an interior angle of a cubical element,  , that was
originally a right angle. The shear stress on a material element in solid mechanics is proportional to the strain, and the
constant of proportionality is the shear modulus:
shear stress = shear modulus  strain
In fluid flow, however, the shear stress on a fluid element is proportional to the rate (speed) of strain, and the constant of
proportionality is the viscosity:
shear stress = viscosity  rate of strain
Figure 2.1 depicts an initially rectangular element in a parallel flow field. As the element moves downstream, a shear force
on the top of the element (and a corresponding shear stress in the opposite direction on the bottom of the element) causes
the top surface to move faster (with velocity V + V ) than the bottom (at velocity V). The forward and rearward edges
become inclined at an angle  with respect to the vertical. The rate at which  changes with time, given by  , is the rate
of strain, and can be related to the velocity difference between
 Figure 2.1 y
V
Depiction of strain
caused by a shear stress
(force per area) in a
fluid. The rate of strain is
the rate of change of the
interior angle of the
original rectangle.

(V +  V )  t
F Vt

V + V
Element at Element at 
y
time t time t +  t
V

F
Vt

the two surfaces. In time (t) the upper surface moves (V + V)t while the bottom sur-

face moves Vt, so the net difference is Vt. The strain  is

V-t
 
y
where y is the distance between the two surfaces. The rate of strain is
- V-

t y
In the limit as t → 0 and y → 0, the rate of strain is related to the velocity gradient by

 = dV  dy, so the shear stress (shear force per unit area) is
dV
τ = µ ---- -
dy

Kinematic Viscosity, v
Many equations of fluid mechanics include the ratio µ  p. Because it occurs so frequently, this ratio has been given the
special name kinematic viscosity. The symbol used to identify ki- nematic viscosity is v (nu). Units of kinematic viscosity v
are m2  s, as shown.
µ N · s  m2 2
v = ---  ----------------------- = m  s
p kg  m3
The units for kinematic viscosity in the traditional system are ft2  s.
 EXAMPLE 2.2 CALCULATING VISCOSITY OF LIQUID AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE
The dynamic viscosity of water at 20°C is
1.00  10–3 N · s  m2, and the viscosity at 40°C is
6.53  10–4 N · s  m2.
Using Equation, estimate the viscosity at 30°C.

Problem Definition
Situation: Viscosity of water is specified at two temperatures.
Find: The viscosity at 30°C by interpolation.

Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian Fluids

Fluids for which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of strain are called Newtonian fluids. Because shear stress is
directly proportional to the shear strain, dV  dy, a plot relating these variables (see Fig. 2.2) results in a straight line passing
through the origin. The slope of this line is the value of the dynamic (absolute) viscosity. For some fluids the shear
Figure 2.2
Shear stress relations
for different types
of fluids.
Bingham plastic
Shear-thinning


Newtonian fluid

Shear-thickening

dV
dy

stress may not be directly proportional to the rate of strain; these are called non-Newtonian fluids. One class of non-
Newtonian fluids, shear-thinning fluids, has the interesting property that the ratio of shear stress to shear strain decreases as
the shear strain increases (see Fig. 2.2). Some common shear-thinning fluids are toothpaste, catsup, paints, and printer’s ink.
Fluids for which the viscosity increases with shear rate are shear-thickening fluids. Some examples of these fluids are
mixtures of glass particles in water and gypsum-water mixtures. Another type of non-Newtonian fluid, called a Bingham
plastic, acts like a solid for small values of shear stress and then behaves as a fluid at higher shear stress. The shear stress
versus shear strain rate for a Bingham plastic is also shown in Fig. 2.2. This book will focus on the theory and applications
involving Newtonian fluids. For more information on the theory of flow of non-Newtonian fluids, see references (2) and
(3).

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

The bulk modulus of elasticity, Ev, is a property that relates changes in pressure to changes in volume (e.g., expansion or
contraction)
cha n g e i n pre ssur e
E = – -----d--p------= – ------------- ---- -- ------------- --------------------
v
dVV fractional change in volume
where dp is the differential pressure change, dV is the differential volume change, and V is the volume of fluid. Because dV  V
is negative for a positive dp, a negative sign is used in the definition to yield a positive Ev. The elasticity is often called the
compressibility of the fluid.
The fractional change in volume can be related to the change in material density using
S nce the
i mass is
constant M = pV

dM = p d V + V dp = 0
so
dp dV
V dp = –p dV or ----- = –-------
p V
and the definition of the bulk modulus of elasticity becomes
dp change in pressure
Ev = ------------ = ------------------------------------------------------------------
dp  p fractional change in density
The bulk modulus of elasticity of water is approximately 2.2 GN  m2, which corresponds to a 0.05% change in volume for a
change of 1 MN  m2 in pressure. Obviously, the term incompressible is justifiably applied to water because it has such a small
change in volume for a very large change in pressure.
The elasticity of an ideal gas is proportional to the pressure, according to the ideal gas law. For an isothermal (constant-
temperature) process,
dp
- -- = RT
dp
so
dp
Ev = p---- = pRT = p
dp
For an adiabatic process, Ev = kp, where k is the ratio of specific heats, cp  cv .
The elasticity or compressibility of a gas is important in high-speed gas flows where pressure variations can cause significant density
changes.
Surface Tension
Surface tension, σ (sigma), is a material property whereby a liquid at a material interface, usu-
d ally liquid-gas, exerts a force per unit length along the surface. According to the theory of mo-
Surface-tension lecular attraction, molecules of liquid considerably below the surface act on each other by forces
force that are equal in all directions. However, molecules near the surface have a greater attraction for
each other than they do for molecules below the surface because of the presence of a different
h z substance above the surface. This produces a layer of surface molecules on the liquid that acts
 like a stretched membrane. Because of this membrane effect, each portion of the liquid surface
exerts “tension” on adjacent portions of the surface or on objects that are in contact with the liq-
uid surface. This tension acts in the plane of the surface, and is given by:
Fσ = σL

Figure 2.3 where L is the length over which the surface tension acts.

Capillary action
Surface tension for a water–air surface is 0.073 N  m at room temperature. The magnitude of
in a small tube.
surface tension decreases with increasing temperature; tabulated values for different liquids
as a function of temperature are available in the literature and online. The effect of surface
tension is illustrated for the case of capillary action (rise above a static water level at
atmospheric pressure) in a small tube (Fig. 2.3). Here the end of a small-diameter tube is
inserted into a reservoir of water, and the characteristic curved water surface profile occurs within the tube. The
relatively greater attraction of the water molecules for the glass rather than the air causes the water surface to curve
upward in the region of the glass wall. Then the surface tension force acts around the circumference of the tube, in
the direction indicated. It may be assumed that the contact angle θ (theta) is equal to 0° for water against glass. The
surface tension force produces a net upward force on the water that causes the water in the tube to rise above the water
surface in the reservoir.
Other manifestations of surface tension include the excess pressure (over and above atmospheric pressure) created
inside droplets and bubbles because there is necessarily a pressure difference across a curved interface; the breakup
of a liquid jet into droplets; the shape and motion of bubbles, the structure of foams, and the binding together of
wetted granular material, such as soil.
Surface tension forces for several different cases are shown in Fig. 2.8. Case (a) is a spherical droplet of radius r.
The surface tension force is balanced by the internal pressure.
 A-
3 Fσ = σL = pA
o
r 2πrσ
= pπr2
2σ
p=
-
r
Case (b) is a bubble of radius r that has internal and external surfaces and the
surface- tension force acts on both surfaces, so
p = 2 σ-
r
Case (c) is a cylinder supported by surface-tension forces. The liquid does not
wet the cylinder surface. The maximum weight the surface tension can support is
W = 2Fσ = 2σL
where L is the length of the cylinder.

EXAMPLE 3. CAPILLARY RISE IN A TUBE Solution

To what height above the reservoir level will water (at 20°C) 1. Force balance: Weight of water (down) is balanced by
rise in a glass tube, such as that shown in Fig. 2.3, if the inside surface tension force (up).
diameter of the tube is 1.6 mm?

Problem Definition
Situation: A glass tube of small diameter placed in an open Because the contact angle θ for water against glass is so
reservoir of water induces capillary rise. small, it can be assumed to be 0°; therefore
Find: The height the water will rise above the reservoir level. cosθ  1. Therefore:
Sketch: See Figure 2.3.
4
2. Solve for h :
Plan ----σ- ---------------4-------0--.--0--7--3----N-------m
h 4 ---------- 18.6 mm
Perform a force balance on water that has risen in the tube. 9790 N  m3  1.6  10–3 m
Solve for h.
 A-
4

Vapor Pressure
The pressure at which a liquid will vaporize, or boil, at a given temperature, is called its vapor pressure. This means that
boiling occurs whenever the local pressure equals the vapor pressure. Vapor pressure increases with temperature. Note
that there are two ways to boil a liquid. One way is to raise the temperature, assuming that the pressure is fixed. For
water at
14.7 psia, this can be accomplished by increasing the temperature of water at sea level to 212°F, thus reaching the
temperature where the vapor pressure is equal to the same value. However, boiling can also occur in water at
temperatures much below 212°F if the pressure in the water is reduced to the vapor pressure of water corresponding to
that lower temperature. For example, the vapor pressure of water at 50°F (10°C) is 0.178 psia (approximately 1% of
standard atmospheric pressure). Therefore, if the pressure in water at 50°F is reduced to 0.178 psia, the water boils.*
Such boiling often occurs in localized low-pressure zones of flowing liquids, such as on the suction side of a pump.
When localized low-pressure boiling does occur in flowing liquids, vapor bubbles start growing in local regions of very
low pressure and then collapse in regions of higher pressure downstream.

PROBLEMS:
1. An engineer living at an elevation of 2500 ft is conducting experiments to verify predictions of glider performance. To
process data, density of ambient air is needed. The engineer measures temperature (74.3°F) and atmospheric pressure
(27.3 inches of mercury). Calculate density in units of kg  m3. Compare the calculated value with data from Table A.3
and make a recommendation about the effects of elevation on density; that is, are the effects of elevation significant?
2. Determine the density and specific weight of methane gas at a pressure of 300 kN  m2 absolute and 60°C.
3. A 10 m3 oxygen tank is at 15°C and 800 kPa. The valve is opened, and some oxygen is released until the pressure in the tank
drops to 600 kPa. Calculate the mass of oxygen that has been released from the tank if the temperature in the tank does not
change during the process.
4. What is the change in the viscosity and density of water be- tween 10°C and 70°C? What is the change in the viscosity and
density of air between 10°C and 70°C? Assume standard atmospheric pressure (p = 101 kN  m2 absolute).
5. Find the kinematic and dynamic viscosities of air and water at a temperature of 40°C (104°F) and an absolute pressure of 170
kPa (25 psia).
6. The velocity distribution for water (20°C) near a wall is given by u = a(y  b)1/6, where a = 10 m  s, b = 2 mm, and
y is the distance from the wall in mm. Determine the shear stress in the water at y = 1 mm.

u
y
x

7. Calculate the pressure increase that must be applied to water to reduce its volume by 2%.
8. A spherical soap bubble has an inside radius R, a film thickness t, and a surface tension σ. Derive a formula for the pressure
within the bubble relative to the outside atmospheric
9. A water column in a glass tube is used to measure the pressure in a pipe. The tube is 1  4 in. (6.35 mm) in diameter. How much
of the water column is due to surface-tension effects? What would be the surface-tension effects if the tube were 1  8 in. (3.2 mm)
or 1  32 in. (0.8 mm) in diameter?
10. What is the pressure within a 1 mm spherical droplet of water relative to the atmospheric pressure outside?
11. Water is at 20°C, and the pressure is lowered until bubbles are noticed to be forming. What must the magnitude of the
pressure be?
12. The vapor pressure of water at 100°C is 101 kN  m2, because water boils under these conditions. The vapor pressure of
water decreases approximately linearly with decreasing temperature at a rate of 3.1 kN  m2  C. Calculate the boiling
temperature of water at an altitude of 3000 m, where the atmospheric pressure is 69 kN  m2 absolute.
 A-
5
Table A.1 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TABLES FOR AN IDEAL GAS WITH k = 1.4
M or M1 = local number or Mach number upstream of a normal shock wave; p  pt = ratio of static
pressure to total pressure; p  pt = ratio of static density to total density; T  Tt = ratio of static
temperature to total temperature; A  A* = ratio of local cross-sectional area of an isentropic stream
tube to cross-sectional area at the point where M = 1; M2 = Mach number downstream of a normal
shock wave; p2  p1 = static pressure ratio across a normal shock wave; T2  T1 = static pressure ratio
across a normal shock wave; pt2  pt 1 = total pressure ratio across normal shock wave.
Subsonic Flow
M p  pt p  pt T  Tt A  A*
0.00 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 
0.05 0.9983 0.9988 0.9995 11.5914
0.10 0.9930 0.9950 0.9980 5.8218
0.15 0.9844 0.9888 0.9955 3.9103
0.20 0.9725 0.9803 0.9921 2.9630
0.25 0.9575 0.9694 0.9877 2.4027
0.30 0.9395 0.9564 0.9823 2.0351
0.35 0.9188 0.9413 0.9761 1.7780
0.40 0.8956 0.9243 0.9690 1.5901
0.45 0.8703 0.9055 0.9611 1.4487
0.50 0.8430 0.8852 0.9524 1.3398
0.52 0.8317 0.8766 0.9487 1.3034
0.54 0.8201 0.8679 0.9449 1.2703
0.56 0.8082 0.8589 0.9410 1.2403
0.58 0.7962 0.8498 0.9370 1.2130
0.60 0.7840 0.8405 0.9328 1.1882
0.62 0.7716 0.8310 0.9286 1.1657
0.64 0.7591 0.8213 0.9243 1.1452
0.66 0.7465 0.8115 0.9199 1.1265
0.68 0.7338 0.8016 0.9153 1.1097
0.70 0.7209 0.7916 0.9107 1.0944
0.72 0.7080 0.7814 0.9061 1.0806
0.74 0.6951 0.7712 0.9013 1.0681
0.76 0.6821 0.7609 0.8964 1.0570
0.78 0.6691 0.7505 0.8915 1.0471
0.80 0.6560 0.7400 0.8865 1.0382
0.82 0.6430 0.7295 0.8815 1.0305
0.84 0.6300 0.7189 0.8763 1.0237
0.86 0.6170 0.7083 0.8711 1.0179
0.88 0.6041 0.6977 0.8659 1.0129
0.90 0.5913 0.6870 0.8606 1.0089
0.92 0.5785 0.6764 0.8552 1.0056
0.94 0.5658 0.6658 0.8498 1.0031
0.96 0.5532 0.6551 0.8444 1.0014
0.98 0.5407 0.6445 0.8389 1.0003
1.00 0.5283 0.6339 0.8333 1.0000
(Continued)
 A-
6

Table A.1 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TABLES FOR AN IDEAL GAS WITH k = 1.4 (Continued)
Supersonic Flow Normal Shock Wave
M1 p  pt p  pt T  Tt A  A* M2 p2  p1 T2  T1 pt 2  pt 1
1.00 0.5283 0.6339 0.8333 1.000 1.0000 1.000 1.000 1.0000
1.01 0.5221 0.6287 0.8306 1.000 0.9901 1.023 1.007 0.9999
1.02 0.5160 0.6234 0.8278 1.000 0.9805 1.047 1.013 0.9999
1.03 0.5099 0.6181 0.8250 1.001 0.9712 1.071 1.020 0.9999
1.04 0.5039 0.6129 0.8222 1.001 0.9620 1.095 1.026 0.9999
1.05 0.4979 0.6077 0.8193 1.002 0.9531 1.120 1.033 0.9998
1.06 0.4919 0.6024 0.8165 1.003 0.9444 1.144 1.039 0.9997
1.07 0.4860 0.5972 0.8137 1.004 0.9360 1.169 1.046 0.9996
1.08 0.4800 0.5920 0.8108 1.005 0.9277 1.194 1.052 0.9994
1.09 0.4742 0.5869 0.8080 1.006 0.9196 1.219 1.059 0.9992
1.10 0.4684 0.5817 0.8052 1.008 0.9118 1.245 1.065 0.9989
1.11 0.4626 0.5766 0.8023 1.010 0.9041 1.271 1.071 0.9986
1.12 0.4568 0.5714 0.7994 1.011 0.8966 1.297 1.078 0.9982
1.13 0.4511 0.5663 0.7966 1.013 0.8892 1.323 1.084 0.9978
1.14 0.4455 0.5612 0.7937 1.015 0.8820 1.350 1.090 0.9973
1.15 0.4398 0.5562 0.7908 1.017 0.8750 1.376 1.097 0.9967
1.16 0.4343 0.5511 0.7879 1.020 0.8682 1.403 1.103 0.9961
1.17 0.4287 0.5461 0.7851 1.022 0.8615 1.430 1.109 0.9953
1.18 0.4232 0.5411 0.7822 1.025 0.8549 1.458 1.115 0.9946
1.19 0.4178 0.5361 0.7793 1.026 0.8485 1.485 1.122 0.9937
1.20 0.4124 0.5311 0.7764 1.030 0.8422 1.513 1.128 0.9928
1.21 0.4070 0.5262 0.7735 1.033 0.8360 1.541 1.134 0.9918
1.22 0.4017 0.5213 0.7706 1.037 0.8300 1.570 1.141 0.9907
1.23 0.3964 0.5164 0.7677 1.040 0.8241 1.598 1.147 0.9896
1.24 0.3912 0.5115 0.7648 1.043 0.8183 1.627 1.153 0.9884
1.25 0.3861 0.5067 0.7619 1.047 0.8126 1.656 1.159 0.9871
1.30 0.3609 0.4829 0.7474 1.066 0.7860 1.805 1.191 0.9794
1.35 0.3370 0.4598 0.7329 1.089 0.7618 1.960 1.223 0.9697
1.40 0.3142 0.4374 0.7184 1.115 0.7397 2.120 1.255 0.9582
1.45 0.2927 0.4158 0.7040 1.144 0.7196 2.286 1.287 0.9448
1.50 0.2724 0.3950 0.6897 1.176 0.7011 2.458 1.320 0.9278
1.55 0.2533 0.3750 0.6754 1.212 0.6841 2.636 1.354 0.9132
1.60 0.2353 0.3557 0.6614 1.250 0.6684 2.820 1.388 0.8952
1.65 0.2184 0.3373 0.6475 1.292 0.6540 3.010 1.423 0.8760
1.70 0.2026 0.3197 0.6337 1.338 0.6405 3.205 1.458 0.8557
1.75 0.1878 0.3029 0.6202 1.386 0.6281 3.406 1.495 0.8346
1.80 0.1740 0.2868 0.6068 1.439 0.6165 3.613 1.532 0.8127
1.85 0.1612 0.2715 0.5936 1.495 0.6057 3.826 1.569 0.7902
1.90 0.1492 0.2570 0.5807 1.555 0.5956 4.045 1.608 0.7674
1.95 0.1381 0.2432 0.5680 1.619 0.5862 4.270 1.647 0.7442
2.00 0.1278 0.2300 0.5556 1.688 0.5774 4.500 1.688 0.7209
2.10 0.1094 0.2058 0.5313 1.837 0.5613 4.978 1.770 0.6742
2.20 0.9352–1† 0.1841 0.5081 2.005 0.5471 5.480 1.857 0.6281
2.30 0.7997–1 0.1646 0.4859 2.193 0.5344 6.005 1.947 0.5833
2.50 0.5853–1 0.1317 0.4444 2.637 0.5130 7.125 2.138 0.4990
2.60 0.5012–1 0.1179 0.4252 2.896 0.5039 7.720 2.238 0.4601
2.70 0.4295–1 0.1056 0.4068 3.183 0.4956 8.338 2.343 0.4236
2.80 0.3685–1 0.9463–1 0.3894 3.500 0.4882 8.980 2.451 0.3895
2.90 0.3165–1 0.8489–1 0.3729 3.850 0.4814 9.645 2.563 0.3577
3.00 0.2722–1 0.7623–1 0.3571 4.235 0.4752 10.330 2.679 0.3283
3.50 0.1311–1 0.4523–1 0.2899 6.790 0.4512 14.130 3.315 0.2129
4.00 0.6586–2 0.2766–1 0.2381 10.72 0.4350 18.500 4.047 0.1388
(Continued)
 A-
7
Table A.1 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW TABLES FOR AN IDEAL GAS WITH k = 1.4 (Continued)
Supersonic Flow Normal Shock Wave
M1 p  pt p  pt T  Tt A  A* M2 p2  p1 T2  T1 pt 2  pt 1
4.50 0.3455–2 0.1745–1 0.1980 16.56 0.4236 23.460 4.875 0.9170–1
5.00 0.1890–2 0.1134–1 0.1667 25.00 0.4152 29.000 5.800 0.6172–1
5.50 0.1075–2 0.7578–2 0.1418 36.87 0.4090 35.130 6.822 0.4236–1
6.00 0.6334–2 0.5194–2 0.1220 53.18 0.4042 41.830 7.941 0.2965–1
6.50 0.3855–2 0.3643–2 0.1058 75.13 0.4004 49.130 9.156 0.2115–1
7.00 0.2416–3 0.2609–2 0.9259–1 104.1 0.3974 57.000 10.47 0.1535–1
7.50 0.1554–3 0.1904–2 0.8163–1 141.8 0.3949 65.460 11.88 0.1133–1
8.00 0.1024–3 0.1414–2 0.7246–1 190.1 0.3929 74.500 13.39 0.8488–2
8.50 0.6898–4 0.1066–2 0.6472–1 251.1 0.3912 84.130 14.99 0.6449–2
9.00 0.4739–4 0.8150–3 0.5814–1 327.2 0.3898 94.330 16.69 0.4964–2
9.50 0.3314–4 0.6313–3 0.5249–1 421.1 0.3886 105.100 18.49 0.3866–2
10.00 0.2356–4 0.4948–3 0.4762–1 535.9 0.3876 116.500 20.39 0.3045–2

†x–n means x ∙ 10–n.

SOURCE: Abridged with permission from R. E. Bolz and G. L. Tuve, The Handbook of Tables for Applied Engineering Sciences, CRC
Press, Inc., Cleveland, 1973. Copyright © 1973 by The Chemical Rubber Co., CRC Press, Inc.

Table A.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES [T = 15°C (59 °F), p = 1 atm]

cp
J S
------------
Kinematic R, kg K Sutherland’s
Density3 Viscosity Gas Constant cp Constant
kg  m m2  s J  kg K  Btu  k = ---- K
 
-------------------
Gas (slugs  ft3) (ft2  s) (ft-lbf  slug-°R) lbm-°R cv (°R)

Air 1.22 1.46  10–5 287 1004 1.40 111

(0.00237) (1.58  10–4) (1716) (0.240) (199)
Carbon dioxide 1.85 7.84  10–6 189 841 1.30 222
(0.0036) (8.48  10–5) (1130) (0.201) (400)
Helium 0.169 1.14  10–4 2077 5187 1.66 79.4
(0.00033) (1.22  10–3) (12,419) (1.24) (143)
Hydrogen 0.0851 1.01  10–4 4127 14,223 1.41 96.7
(0.00017) (1.09  10–3) (24,677) (3.40) (174)
Methane (natural gas) 0.678 1.59  10–5 518 2208 1.31 198
(0.0013) (1.72  10–4) (3098) (0.528) (356)
Nitrogen 1.18 1.45  10–5 297 1041 1.40 107
(0.0023) (1.56  10–4) (1776) (0.249) (192)
Oxygen 1.35 1.50  10–5 260 916 1.40
(0.0026) (1.61  10–4) (1555) (0.219)

SOURCE: V. L.Streeter (ed.), Handbook of Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1961; also R. E. Bolz and G. L. Tuve, Handbook of Tables
for Applied Engineering Science, CRC Press, Inc. Cleveland, 1973; and Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, Chemical Rubber Company, 1951.
 A-
8

Table A.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR AT STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Specific Dynamic Kinematic
Temperature Density Weight Viscosity Viscosity

kg  m3 N  m3 N · s  m2 m2  s

–20°C 1.40 13.70 1.61  10–5 1.16  10–5

–10°C 1.34 13.20 1.67  10–5 1.24  10–5
0°C 1.29 12.70 1.72  10–5 1.33  10–5
10°C 1.25 12.20 1.76  10–5 1.41  10–5
20°C 1.20 11.80 1.81  10–5 1.51  10–5
30°C 1.17 11.40 1.86  10–5 1.60  10–5
40°C 1.13 11.10 1.91  10–5 1.69  10–5
50°C 1.09 10.70 1.95  10–5 1.79  10–5
60°C 1.06 10.40 2.00  10–5 1.89  10–5
70°C 1.03 10.10 2.04  10–5 1.99  10–5
80°C 1.00 9.81 2.09  10–5 2.09  10–5
90°C 0.97 9.54 2.13  10–5 2.19  10–5
100°C 0.95 9.28 2.17  10–5 2.29  10–5
120°C 0.90 8.82 2.26  10–5 2.51  10–5
140°C 0.85 8.38 2.34  10–5 2.74  10–5
160°C 0.81 7.99 2.42  10 –5
2.97  10–5
180°C 0.78 7.65 2.50  10–5 3.20  10–5
200°C 0.75 7.32 2.57  10–5 3.44  10–5

slugs  ft3 lbf  ft3 lbf-s  ft2 ft2  s

0°F 0.00269 0.0866 3.39  10–7 1.26  10–4

20°F 0.00257 0.0828 3.51  10–7 1.37  10–4
40°F 0.00247 0.0794 3.63  10–7 1.47  10–4
60°F 0.00237 0.0764 3.74  10–7 1.58  10–4
80°F 0.00228 0.0735 3.85  10–7 1.69  10–4
100°F 0.00220 0.0709 3.96  10–7 1.80  10–4
120°F 0.00213 0.0685 4.07  10 –7
1.91  10–4
150°F 0.00202 0.0651 4.23  10–7 2.09  10–4
200°F 0.00187 0.0601 4.48  10–7 2.40  10–4
300°F 0.00162 0.0522 4.96  10–7 3.05  10–4
400°F 0.00143 0.0462 5.40  10–7 3.77  10–4

SOURCE: Reprinted with permission from R. E. Bolz and G. L. Tuve, Handbook of Tables for Applied Engineering Science, CRC
Press, Inc., Cleveland, 1973. Copyright © 1973 by The Chemical Rubber Co., CRC Press, Inc.
 A-
9

Table A.4 APPROXIMATE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMON LIQUIDS AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Specific Dynamic Kinematic Surface
Density Weight Viscosity Viscosity Tension

kg  m3 N  m3 N · s  m2 m2  s N  m*
Liquid and Specific
Temperature (slugs  ft3) Gravity (lbf  ft3) (lbf-s  ft2) (ft2  s) (lbf  ft)

Ethyl alcohol(1)(3) 799 0.79 7,850 1.2  10–3 1.5  10–6 2.2  10–2
20°C (68°F) (1.55) (50.0) (2.5  10–5) (1.6  10–5) (1.5  10–3)
Carbon tetrachloride(3) 1,590 1.59 15,600 9.6  10–4 6.0  10–7 2.6  10–2
20°C (68°F) (3.09) (99.5) (2.0  10–5) (6.5  10–6) (1.8  10–3)

Glycerine(3) 1,260 1.26 12,300 1.41 1.12  10–3 6.3  10–2

20°C (68°F) (2.45) (78.5) (2.95  10–2) (1.22  10–2) (4.3  10–3)
Kerosene(1)(2) 814 0.81 8,010 1.9  10–3 2.37  10–6 2.9  10–2
20°C (68°F) (1.58) (51) (4.0  10–5) (2.55  10–5) (2.0  10–3)
Mercury(1)(3) 13,550 13.55 133,000 1.5  10–3 1.2  10–7 4.8  10–1
20°C (68°F) (26.3) (847) (3.1  10–5) (1.3  10–6) (3.3  10–2)
Sea water 10°C 1,026 1.03 10,070 1.4  10–3 1.4  10–6
at 3.3% salinity (1.99) (64.1) (2.9  10–5) (1.5  10–5)
Oils—38°C (100°F) 870 0.87 8,530 3.6  10–2 4.1  10–5
SAE 10W(4) (1.69) (54.4) (7.5  10–4) (4.4  10–4)
SAE 10W-30(4) 880 0.88 8,630 6.7  10–2 7.6  10–5
(1.71) (55.1) (1.4  10–3) (8.2  10–4)
SAE 30(4) 880 0.88 8,630 1.0  10–1 1.1  10–4
(1.71) (55.1) (2.1  10–3) (1.2  10–3)

*Liquid–air surface tension values.

SOURCES: (1) V. L. Streeter, Handbook of Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961; (2) V. L. Streeter, Fluid Mechanics, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1966; (3) A. A. Newman, Glycerol, CRC Press, Cleveland, 1968; (4) R. E. Bolz and G. L. Tuve, Handbook of Tables for Applied Engineering
Sciences, CRC Press, Cleveland, 1973.

Table A.5 APPROXIMATE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER* AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Temperature Density Specific Weight Dynamic Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity Vapor Pressure
3
kg  m N  m3 N · s  m2 m2  s N  m2 abs
0ºC 1000 9810 1.79  10–3 1.79  10–6 611
5ºC 1000 9810 1.51  10–3 1.51  10–6 872
10ºC 1000 9810 1.31  10–3 1.31  10–6 1,230
15ºC 999 9800 1.14  10–3 1.14  10–6 1,700
20ºC 998 9790 1.00  10–3 1.00  10–6 2,340
25ºC 997 9781 8.91  10–4 8.94  10–7 3,170
30ºC 996 9771 7.97  10–4 8.00  10–7 4,250
35ºC 994 9751 7.20  10–4 7.24  10–7 5,630
 A-
10
40ºC 992 9732 6.53  10 –4
6.58  10 –7
7,380
50ºC 988 9693 5.47  10–4 5.53  10–7 12,300
60ºC 983 9643 4.66  10–4 4.74  10–7 20,000
70ºC 978 9594 4.04  10–4 4.13  10–7 31,200
80ºC 972 9535 3.54  10–4 3.64  10–7 47,400
90ºC 965 9467 3.15  10–4 3.26  10–7 70,100
100ºC 958 9398 2.82  10–4 2.94  10–7 101,300
slugs  ft3 lbf  ft3 lbf-s  ft2 ft2  s psia
40ºF 1.94 62.43 3.23  10–5 1.66  10–5 0.122
50ºF 1.94 62.40 2.73  10–5 1.41  10–5 0.178
60ºF 1.94 62.37 2.36  10–5 1.22  10–5 0.256
70ºF 1.94 62.30 2.05  10–5 1.06  10–5 0.363
80ºF 1.93 62.22 1.80  10–5 0.930  10–5 0.506
100ºF 1.93 62.00 1.42  10–5 0.739  10–5 0.949
120ºF 1.92 61.72 1.17  10–5 0.609  10–5 1.69
140ºF 1.91 61.38 0.981  10–5 0.514  10–5 2.89
160ºF 1.90 61.00 0.838  10–5 0.442  10–5 4.74
180ºF 1.88 60.58 0.726  10–5 0.385  10–5 7.51
200ºF 1.87 60.12 0.637  10–5 0.341  10–5 11.53
212ºF 1.86 59.83 0.593  10–5 0.319  10–5 14.70
* Notes: (1) Bulk modulus Ev of water is approximately 2.2 GPa (3.2  105 psi); (2) water–air surface tension is approximately 7.3  10–2 N  m (5  10–3 lbf  ft) from 10ºC
to 50ºC.
SOURCE: Reprinted with permission from R. E. Bolz and G. L. Tuve, Handbook of Tables for Applied Engineering Science, CRC Press, Inc., Cleveland, 1973.
Copyright © 1973 by The Chemical Rubber Co., CRC Press, Inc.