CINEMATOGRAPHY

Module 1: Lesson 1

The World Bank Federal Ministry of Education National Board for Technical Education Wassh Productions
INTRODUCTION TO CINEMATOGRAPHY
The word cinematography comes from two Greek roots: "Kinema" (κῑ́νημα): This Greek
word means "movement" or "motion." It stems from the verb kinein (κινειν), which means
"to move." This part of the word reflects the focus on moving images, which is central to film
and cinema. "Graphy" (γραφή): This suffix comes from the Greek word graphein (γράφειν),
meaning "to write" or "to record." It indicates the process of recording or writing down
images. Combining these roots, cinematography essentially means "recording motion" or
"writing movement," which captures the essence of capturing moving images on film or
digital media. The term was popularized in the late 19th century as motion picture
technology emerged. Cinematography is the art and science of capturing visual images on
film or digital media for the purpose of storytelling in movies, television, and other visual
media. It involves making creative decisions about how scenes are shot, including camera
movement, lighting, framing, color, and composition, to create a particular mood, emphasize
certain themes, or evoke emotions in the audience. Good cinematography does more than
just capture scenes; it shapes how audiences interpret a story.
Through visual language, it can reveal a character’s emotions, build suspense, create beauty,
or immerse viewers in a particular time or place. It plays a critical role in making films
compelling, memorable, and impactful.At the intersection of visual art and technical
expertise, cinematography remains one of the most dynamic aspects of filmmaking. It
requires a balance between creativity and technical skill, as cinematographers work closely
with directors to translate scripts into visual narratives that are both artistically compelling
and technically precise. This blend of artistry and technology positions cinematography as a
foundational discipline within the cinematic arts, essential for transforming written stories
into engaging, visually captivating experiences for the screen.
The HISTORY of cinematography is a fascinating journey from simple experiments with
motion and light to the complex visual storytelling that defines modern cinema.
Cinematography essentially began in the late 19th century, when inventors like Eadweard
Muybridge and Thomas Edison pioneered ways to capture and project motion.
PRE-CINEMA DEVICES AND OPTICAL TOYS (1830S-1890S)
Before cinema as we know it, there were optical toys like the zoetrope and phenakistoscope
in the early 19th century. These devices created the illusion of movement by rapidly
displaying a sequence of images. These experiments in visual perception set the stage for the
development of film.
The phenakistoscope is another early animation device, invented in 1832 by Joseph Plateau
in Belgium and Simon Stampfer in Austria. This device consists of a circular disc with a series
of images on it, arranged in radial patterns, each slightly different from the one before. Users
would hold the disc up to a mirror and spin it while viewing through slits on the disc's edge.
As it spun, each image aligned in quick succession, creating the illusion of motion, similar to
how modern animated frames create movement.
 This device is considered one of the
earliest examples of "persistence of
vision" in animation, where separate
images viewed rapidly in sequence
appear as one moving image. The
phenakistoscope helped lay the
groundwork for future inventions
Image 1- phenakistoscope Image 2- Zoetrope like the zoetrope and ultimately the
motion picture camera. In 1888,
Phenakistoscope: https://youtu.be/ofqs7vwg3Wc?feature=shared Louis Le Prince shot the first motion
https://youtu.be/r4B3FHHt_k8?si=siRRpE87oId_j5Wz picture on film using a single-lens
Zoetrope: https://youtu.be/SBg6dAE3mI0?si=-0TKi17a4e_DTTeR camera, further paving the way for
cinema.
 CINEMATOGRAPHY HISTORY HIGHLIGHTS
1. Early Motion Experiments (1870s-1890s): Eadweard Muybridge, in the 1870s, developed
a sequence of photographs to study the movement of horses, capturing each phase of
motion. This was followed by Thomas Edison, William Kennedy and Laurie Dickson's
kinetoscope in the 1890s, a device that allowed one person at a time to view moving
pictures.
Eadweard Muybridge (1830–1904) was a pioneering English photographer and early motion
picture innovator whose work laid the foundation for modern cinema. Muybridge is best
known for his groundbreaking studies of motion, especially through his work with a series of
cameras that captured movement in sequential frames, known as chronophotography. His
work influenced both scientific study and visual storytelling, bridging the gap between
photography and film. Muybridge's Key Contributions
 Muybridge's Key Contributions
• The "Galloping Horse" Experiment (1878):
Muybridge’s most famous work began with a
challenge from railroad tycoon Leland Stanford, who
wanted to settle a debate about whether all four of a
horse's hooves left the ground during a gallop.
Muybridge developed a system using 12 to 24
cameras lined up along a track to capture each phase
of the horse’s stride. This experiment in 1878
confirmed that horses do indeed lift all four hooves
off the ground mid-gallop, a discovery captured in his
sequence of photos called The Horse in Motion. This
was one of the earliest examples of using
photographic technology to capture and analyze
animal motion scientifically.
• Zoopraxiscope (1879): Building on his experiments with sequential photography,
Muybridge invented the zoopraxiscope, a device that projected images in rapid
succession, creating the illusion of motion. Using this device, he could project
images onto a screen, and viewers could see animated sequences based on his
photos. This invention was a precursor to the movie projector, and it laid the
groundwork for early motion picture technology.

Explainer video: https://youtu.be/aG5erS2GNG0?si=j1v3DmoEzKegODAc

• Animal Locomotion Studies (1880s): Muybridge conducted extensive studies of
both animal and human motion, supported by the University of Pennsylvania.
Over the course of several years, he captured thousands of photographs
documenting various activities and motions, from walking and running to complex
athletic and acrobatic movements. Published in the collection Animal Locomotion
(1887), this work provided a detailed look at the mechanics of movement and
influenced fields ranging from biomechanics to animation.
Resource animation video. https://youtu.be/wNU7sXkZmSw?si=IK_L8DLR8heHp0rB
Stop motion animation based on Muybridge's research.
https://youtu.be/mF1RrYqvdY4?si=4ixIQTDWz8j-F3dl
• Influence on Art and Film: Muybridge’s work influenced numerous artists,
including painters and sculptors interested in realistic depictions of movement.
Artists like Marcel Duchamp and Francis Bacon drew inspiration from Muybridge’s
photographs. His studies also significantly impacted the development of
animation, film, and photography as tools for storytelling. Early filmmakers,
including Thomas Edison, were inspired by Muybridge’s sequential photography to
develop their own motion picture systems.
Muybridge's Legacy: Muybridge’s work was groundbreaking because it not only
provided new ways of understanding motion but also offered a novel approach to
studying the world through photography. By combining art and science, he
effectively laid the foundation for cinematography, influencing filmmakers, artists,
and scientists alike.
2. Thomas Edison’s Kinetoscope was an early motion picture device that allowed an
individual to view moving images through a peephole. Developed in the late 19th
century by Edison and his assistant William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, the Kinetoscope
was not a projector but rather a machine for viewing films individually, which
marked an important step in the evolution of cinema technology.

Development and Design: Invented by Edison and Dickson

in 1888-1891, the Kinetoscope was based on the idea of
creating a motion picture viewing device that would
replicate real-life motion using a sequence of images. The
machine worked through a strip of film that was moved
rapidly over a light source by an electric motor.
Viewing Mechanism: A person would peer through a small window at the top of the
machine. The film was looped continuously, creating the illusion of movement by
displaying a series of still images at high speed. The Kinetoscope film strip was 35
mm wide and perforated on the edges, a standard that eventually became the film
industry norm.
How It Worked: The Kinetoscope operated on a
series of rapid, flashing images. Inside the machine,
the film passed over a light bulb and a shutter,
which synchronized the images to be viewed in
rapid succession, giving the appearance of smooth
motion.
Unlike later devices like the Lumière brothers' Cinématographe, which projected
images for an audience, the Kinetoscope was designed for individual viewing. Its
limitations made it impractical for mass entertainment, as only one person could watch
at a time.
Limitations and Decline: The major limitation of the Kinetoscope was that it was not
a projector. Other inventors were working on projection-based solutions that would
soon transform film into a shared viewing experience, a key factor in cinema’s rapid
growth. By the late 1890s, the Kinetoscope’s popularity declined as new projection
technologies emerged, especially the Cinématographe by the Lumière brothers,
which allowed films to be projected to an audience on a screen.
Legacy in Film: Despite its limitations, Edison’s Kinetoscope played a foundational
role in the development of early cinema by showing that moving pictures could be a
viable form of entertainment. The machine was influential in establishing the
standard 35 mm film format and the idea of using a series of frames to create
motion, which remain core principles in cinema today.
3. The Lumière Brothers (1895): The Lumière brothers, Auguste and Louis Lumière,
were French inventors and pioneers in the early days of cinema. They are best
known for their groundbreaking work in motion pictures, as they invented the
Cinématographe — a combination of a camera, projector, and film printer — which
was instrumental in launching the film industry.
Auguste (1862–1954) and Louis (1864–1948) were born in Besançon, France, into a
family involved in photography. Their father, Antoine Lumière, owned a photography
business, which initially sparked the brothers' interest in image-making and
technology. They had a strong background in chemistry and mechanics, which
allowed them to create and improve various photographic processes.
Key Innovations and Inventions of the Lumiere brothers: The Cinématographe
(1895) was a lightweight, hand-cranked device that could film, develop, and project
images. This device was more versatile and efficient than Thomas Edison's
Kinetoscope, which could only be viewed by one person at a time.
The Cinématographe was revolutionary because it allowed
audiences to watch moving images projected onto a screen,
making shared cinematic experiences possible.
First Public Film Screening: On December 28, 1895, the
Lumière brothers held what is often considered the first
public screening of films at the Salon Indien du Grand Café
in Paris.They screened several short films, including the
now-famous La Sortie de l'Usine Lumière à Lyon (Workers
Leaving the Lumière Factory). This event marked the birth
of cinema as we know it, with audiences paying to see
projected motion pictures for the first time.
Short Films (Actualités): The Lumières are famous for their “actualités”, short films
capturing real-life moments and events, which are often regarded as some of the
earliest documentaries. Other iconic films they created include Le Repas de Bébé
(Baby’s Lunch) and L'Arrivée d'un Train en Gare de La Ciotat (Arrival of a Train at La
Ciotat Station). The latter film famously caused some audience members to panic as
they thought the train was coming towards them.
Although they are considered cinema pioneers, the Lumière brothers initially saw film
as a fleeting novelty and moved away from filmmaking in the early 1900s to focus on
other innovations, especially in the fields of medicine and color photography. Louis, for
example, developed the Lumière Autochrome, one of the first commercially successful
color photography processes, in 1907. The Lumière brothers' work laid the foundation
for modern cinema, influencing subsequent generations of filmmakers and the
development of the film industry worldwide.
4. Silent Film Era & the Birth of Narrative Cinema(1900s-1920s): Directors like
Georges Méliès and D.W. Griffith experimented with new storytelling techniques, using
editing, special effects, and more sophisticated cinematography to engage audiences.
The era of silent films saw massive growth in cinematic techniques, culminating in films
like Metropolis (1927) by Fritz Lang, which featured complex cinematography and set
design. During the silent film era, cinematography developed rapidly. Directors and
cinematographers started experimenting with camera angles, lighting, and editing to
create visual drama. Here are some key developments:
• Editing and Continuity: Filmmakers like D.W. Griffith introduced continuity editing,
using close-ups, long shots, and intercutting (parallel editing) to tell complex, multi-
layered stories.
• Expressionism: German Expressionist films like The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920)
used distorted sets and dramatic lighting to create mood and emotional intensity,
influencing horror and film noir.
• Visual Techniques: Cinematographers experimented with superimposition, split
screens, and double exposure to add surreal or dreamlike effects to their scenes.

.
4. The Sound Era (1927-1930s): The Jazz Singer (1927) was the first "talkie" and marked
the beginning of synchronized sound in movies. This changed the art of cinematography
by introducing sound into the visual storytelling process. Camera equipment also
became quieter to accommodate sound recording on set.

5. Color Cinematography (1930s-1950s): Although early color experiments occurred

before, Technicolor became the dominant color process by the 1930s. Color brought
new dimensions and emotional layers to storytelling. As sound and color were
integrated, cinematographers in Hollywood became known for creating large-scale
epics and dramas. Studios like MGM and Warner Bros. invested heavily in lavish set
designs, dramatic lighting, and Technicolor to enhance storytelling. Notable
advancements included:
• Three-Strip Technicolor: This process involved using a special camera that split the
incoming light into three color components. Each component was then recorded on a
separate strip of black-and-white film. After filming, each strip was dyed in its
respective color (red, green, or blue), and the three strips were combined to produce
a single full-color image. This complex process resulted in highly saturated, vibrant
colors that became a hallmark of Technicolor films. This color process was perfected
in the 1930s and was pivotal in films like The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938) and
The Wizard of Oz. Technicolor added a vibrancy that brought a new aesthetic
dimension to cinema.
Explainer Video: https://youtu.be/Mqaobr6w6_I?si=7nKjLRWLFEdZTGw2

• Widescreen Formats: By the 1950s, widescreen formats like Cinemascope and

VistaVision became popular, giving films an expansive look that helped them compete
with television. Films like Ben-Hur (1959) utilized widescreen to create a grand,
immersive experience.
• Lighting Techniques: Cinematographers like Gregg Toland, who shot Citizen
Kane (1941), pushed the boundaries of deep focus cinematography, using
extreme contrast, low-key lighting, and innovative angles that became central
to noir and dramatic storytelling.
6. New Wave, Innovation & The Influence of International Cinema (1950s-1970s)
The French New Wave in the 1950s, led by filmmakers like Jean-Luc Godard and
François Truffaut, emphasized a more natural and experimental cinematography style,
using handheld cameras and available light. Around the same time, Hollywood began to
experiment with widescreen formats and new film stocks.
Post-WWII international cinema had a huge impact on cinematography:

• Italian Neorealism: Films like Bicycle Thieves (1948) depicted everyday life with a
focus on authenticity. Directors used non-professional actors and shot on location
with natural light to tell gritty, realistic stories.
• French New Wave: Influential directors like Jean-Luc Godard and François Truffaut
rejected traditional cinematic norms, using jump cuts, handheld cameras, and
breaking the fourth wall to create a raw, innovative style that embraced spontaneity.
• Japanese Cinema: Directors like Akira Kurosawa used long takes, weather elements
(rain, fog, wind), and dynamic movement to create epic visuals. Seven Samurai (1954)
is known for its innovative action sequences and camera work.
7. Digital Revolution (1990s-present): The shift from film to digital formats in the late
20th and early 21st centuries revolutionized cinematography. Filmmakers gained more
flexibility and control, with directors like George Lucas and James Cameron pioneering
digital techniques. Digital cinematography made high-quality filmmaking more
accessible and introduced CGI, radically transforming visual storytelling.

8. The Rise of Blockbuster Cinematography (1970s-1990s): The blockbuster era began

in the 1970s with directors like Steven Spielberg and George Lucas. These directors
utilized state-of-the-art special effects and ambitious camera techniques:
• Steadicam: Invented by Garrett Brown in the 1970s, the Steadicam allowed smooth,
fluid camera movement, revolutionizing action scenes and long takes. It became
famously used in Rocky (1976) and The Shining (1980).
• Special Effects: Films like Star Wars (1977) and Blade Runner (1982) combined
practical effects with cinematography to create immersive sci-fi worlds. Ridley Scott’s
Blade Runner is often cited for its neo-noir aesthetic, which relied on shadows, neon
lighting, and atmospheric sets.
• Music Videos and Commercial Influence: The quick-cut, stylish cinematography of
music videos and commercials in the 1980s and 90s started influencing narrative
cinema, pushing a faster-paced, high-energy style.

9. Digital Revolution and Modern Cinematography (2000s-present): The shift to digital

brought a seismic change, allowing cinematographers unprecedented creative control.
Innovations included:
• Digital Cameras: Films like Slumdog Millionaire (2008) and The Social Network (2010)
showcased the flexibility and clarity of digital cinematography, often allowing
directors to shoot on location in challenging environments.
• Drone Cinematography: Drone cameras now allow for stunning aerial shots that
were once impossible or too expensive, providing filmmakers with new angles and
perspectives.
Avatar Making : https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x8gje06

• Computer-Generated Imagery (CGI): CGI became crucial for blockbuster

filmmaking. Avatar (2009) by James Cameron set new standards with its
realistic CGI and motion-capture technology, merging digital artistry with
live-action.
• Virtual Production: Shows like The Mandalorian use “Stagecraft” or “The
Volume,” a 3D LED screen environment that allows real-time digital
backdrops, revolutionizing on-set lighting and backgrounds.
10. Cinematography Techniques in Modern Storytelling
Today, cinematography goes beyond just capturing images; it’s a storytelling
tool that shapes mood, pace, and character. Directors and cinematographers
collaborate closely to achieve visual narratives that are as complex as the
stories they tell.
• Color Grading and LUTs (Look-Up Tables): Color grading has become a
major component of post-production. Many films now use color LUTs to
create distinct visual atmospheres, like the warm tones in Wes Anderson
films or the teal-and-orange aesthetic popularized in modern action
movies.
• Aspect Ratios and IMAX: Filmmakers frequently experiment with aspect ratios
for storytelling purposes. Christopher Nolan is known for shifting to IMAX for
high-stakes sequences, while films like The Grand Budapest Hotel (2014) use
different aspect ratios to reflect shifts in time.

Exercise: What is aspect ratio? (Discussion)

• Natural Lighting and Realism: The use of natural light, as in films by Terrence Malick
and Emmanuel Lubezki (e.g., The Revenant), emphasizes realism, drawing viewers
deeper into the film's world.

In the digital age, cinematography continues to

evolve rapidly, integrating new technologies like
artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and
augmented reality. Cinematographers today
face the challenge and excitement of balancing
classic techniques with groundbreaking
innovations, constantly pushing the boundaries
of what’s possible on screen.
 Study Questions
• Explain 'Picture in Motion' in relation to the 'Persistence of Vision'
• How did Muybridge's research on movement help develop
cinematography?
• In simple terms, explain why color improved the concept of
cinematography/storytelling.
• Explain Aspect ratio.