5 Capacitance

Contents:
1. Learning Outcomes

2. Definitions

3. Capacitors and Capacitance

4. Energy Stored in a Capacitor

5. Discharging a Capacitor

6. Points to Note

Candidates should be able to:

Define capacitance, as applied to isolated spherical conductors and parallel
plate capacitors.

Recall and use C = Q/V and derive, using C = Q/V , formulae for the
combined capacitance of capacitors in series and in parallel.

Use the capacitance formulae for capacitors in series and in parallel.

Determine the electric potential energy stored in a capacitor from the area
under the potential–charge graph.

Recall and use W = (1/2)QV = (1/2)CV 2 .

Analyse graphs of the variation with time of potential difference, charge and
current for a capacitor discharging through a resistor.

Recall and use τ = RC for the time constant for a capacitor discharging
through a resistor.

5 Capacitance 1
 Use equations of the form x = x0 e(–(t/RC)) where x could represent the
​

current, charge, or potential difference for a capacitor discharging through a

resistor.

Definitions
Capacitance C is the ratio of charge Q to
Capacitance
potential V for a conductor

Farad is the SI unit of electrical capacitance,

equal to the capacitance of a capacitor in
Farad
which one coulomb of charge causes a
potential difference of one volt

A medium or substance having the property

Dielectric of transmitting electric force without
conduction; insulating

Relative permittivity is the factor by which

Relative permittivity the electric field between the charges is
decreased relative to vacuum

The time constant of the circuit, given by

t = rc, refers to the time taken for the
Time Constant
quantity Q, V or I of a capacitor to decrease
to 0.37 of its original value

5.1 Capacitors and Capacitance

5.1.1 Capacitance
Capacitors are electrical devices used to store energy in electronic circuits,
commonly for a backup release of energy if the power fails.
There are two types of capacitors:

isolated spherical conductors

parallel plate capacitors

5 Capacitance 2
 Each capacitor has a value marked on it, known as capacitance.

Capacitance is the charge stored per unit potential difference across the
capacitor. It is a scalar quantity.
Capacitance is calculated using the formula:

C = Q/V 
Where:

C = capacitance (F)
Q = charge (C)

V = potential difference (V)

The unit of capacitance is the farad (symbol F). One farad is one coulomb per volt.
Farad is an inconveniently large unit, hence, the capacitance will often be quoted
as microfarads (μF), nanofarads (nF) or picofarads (pF).
There is also a maximum value that the capacitor can withstand, beyond which it
can short circuit. Such a value is known as the safe voltage.

5.1.2 Isolated spherical conductor

When an isolated spherical conductor is connected to a high-voltage supply, it is
found that, as the potential of the sphere is increased, the charge stored on the
surface of the sphere also increases. The variation of charge Q on the conductor
with potential V is such that charge Q is directly related to potential V.

The capacitance of a charged sphere is defined by the charge per unit potential
at the surface of the sphere.
The potential V is defined by the potential of an isolated point charge (since the
charge on the surface of a spherical conductor can be considered as a point
charge at its center):
Q
V = 4πε 0 r
​
 ​

Where:
ε0 = is the permittivity of free space
​

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 r = radius of the spherical conductor

Hence, the capacitance of a sphere is given by the expression:

C = 4πε0r 
Capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor depends on the size and shape of
the conductor.

5.1.3 Parallel plate capacitor

A parallel plate capacitor consists of two conductive metal plates, with an air gap
between them which acts as an insulator. When the plates are connected to a
battery, the battery transfers electrons from the plate connected to the positive
terminal of the battery to the plate connected to the negative terminal. Thus, the
plates carry equal but opposite charges.

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is defined as the charge stored on

one plate per unit potential difference between the plates.

5 Capacitance 4
 The capacitance of an air-filled capacitor can be increased by putting an
insulating material, such as mica or waxed paper, between the plates. The material
between the plates is called the dielectric.

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area A of

the plates and inversely proportional to the distance d between them.

5 Capacitance 5
 ε0 A
C= d
​

​

A: Area in sq metres
d: distance between plates in metres

ϵ0 = 8.85x10 − 12 F m − 1 
​

Including the relative permittivity factor, the full expression for the capacitance of
a parallel-plate capacitor is:
C= ε0 εr A
​

d
​

 ​

The circuit symbol for a parallel plate capacitor is:

5.1.4 Formula of Capacitance

A combination of capacitors can be in series or parallel or both and the combined
capacitance depends on the type of combination.

5.1.5 Capacitors in series

In the following figure, two capacitors, C1 and C2, are connected in series.

5 Capacitance 6
 If the potential difference across the capacitor that is equivalent to these two
capacitors is V and the charge stored on each plate is q, then V = q/C .

The potential difference across the combination is the sum of the potential
differences across the individual capacitors, V = V1 + V2 , and each capacitor
​ ​

has charge q on each plate.

Since V1 ​ = q/C1 and V2 = q/C2 , then

​ ​ ​

q q q
C
​ = C1 ​
​ + C2
 ​
​

Dividing each side of the equation by q, we have

1 1 1
C
​ = C1 ​
​ + C2​
 ​

A similar result applies to n number of capacitors connected in series:

1 1 1 1
C ​ = C1 ​
​ + C2 ​
​ + … + Cn ​
​

The reciprocal of the combined capacitance equals the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual capacitances connected in series.

5 Capacitance 7
 5.1.6 Capacitors in parallel
In the following figure, two capacitors, C1 and C2 , are connected in parallel.
​ ​

If the potential difference across the capacitor that is equivalent to the two
capacitors in parallel is V and the charge stored on each plate is q, then q =
CV .
The total charge stored is the sum of the charges on the individual capacitors,
q = q1 + q2 , and there is the same potential difference V across each
​ ​

capacitor since they are connected in parallel.

Since q1 ​ = C1 V and q2 = C2 V , then

​ ​

CV = C1 V + C2 V 
​ ​

Dividing each side of the equation by V , we have

C = C1 + C2 
​ ​

The same result applies for n number of capacitors connected in parallel.

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 C = C1 + C2 + … + Cn 
​ ​ ​

The combined capacitance equals the sum of all the individual capacitances in
parallel.

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 Skill Check 1

Find the total capacitance:

1) C1 ​ = 20μF
 , C2 = 30μF , C3 = 50μF 
​ ​

2)C1 ​ = 20μF , C2 = 30μF , C3 = 50μF 

​ ​

3) C1 ​ = 50μF , C2 = 20μF , C3 = 30μF 

​ ​

5 Capacitance 10
 Solution

1. Note: These capacitors are in parallel, so they will be added like

resistors are added in series.
T otal Capacitance = (20 + 30 + 50)μF = 100μF 

2. Note: These capacitors are in series, so they will be added like

resistors are added in parallel.

T otal Capacitance = (20−1 + 30−1 + 50−1 )−1 μF = 9.68μF 

3. Step 1: Find total capacitance of C2 and C3 .

​ ​

C2 and C3 are arranged in parallel, so C1 + C2 = (20 + 30) μF = 50

μF
Step 2: Find total capacitance of C1 ​ + C2 + C3 .
​ ​

(C 2 ​
+ C3 )and C1 are arranged in series, so the total capacitance
​ ​

will be:

T otal Capacitance = (50−1 + 50−1 )−1 μF = 25μF 

5 Capacitance 11
 5.1.7 Uses of Capacitors
1. Time delay circuits

2. AC to DC conversions

3. Buffers

4. Filter circuits

5. Used in a circuit to give a smoother output p.d and reduce the ‘ripple’ on
rectified current or voltage

6. Tuning circuits

5.2 Energy Stored in a Capacitor

5.2.1 Energy of Capacitor
When charging a capacitor, work is done by the battery to move charge onto the
capacitor, separating positive and negative charges. Energy is transferred from
the power supply and is stored as electric potential energy in the capacitor.

Initially, a small amount of charge is pushed from the positive to the negative plate
(since adding more electrons to the negative plate at first is relatively easy as
there is less repulsion), then gradually, this builds up.

The force of repulsion between the electrons on the plate and the new electrons
being pushed onto it increases as the charge of the negative plate increases.

While more and more charges are transferred to the negative plate, a greater
amount of work is being done therefore the potential difference is increasing.

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 Since Q = CV , the charge stored on each plate of a capacitor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the capacitor. The graph of charge
against potential difference is therefore a straight-line graph through the origin.

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 From the definition of potential difference, the work done to charge the capacitor
(and therefore, the energy transferred to the capacitor) is the product of the
potential difference and the charge. That is,

W (and E.P.) = V Q
The electric potential energy stored in the capacitor can therefore be determined
from the area under the potential-charge graph which is equal to the area of a
right-angled triangle:
E = 21 QV 
​

5 Capacitance 14
 Since C = Q/V , this expression can be written in different forms;
Q2
E = 21 CV 2 
​
E= 2C 
​

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 Skill Check 2

Explain why the capacitor stores energy but not charge.

Solution

Charges on each plate of a parallel plate capacitor are equal and

opposite, hence there is no resultant charge.
It is said that a capacitor is charged not because it stores charges, but
because the electrons are transferred or pumped from one plate to
another, which creates an imbalance of charges between the plates
(they are separated). There is only a transfer of charges and work is
done on the charges to achieve this, therefore the capacitor stores
energy.

5.3 Discharging a Capacitor

5.3.1 Capacitor Discharge Graphs
Capacitors are discharged through a resistor.
Consider the following circuit:

5 Capacitance 16
 When the two-way switch is connected to point A, the capacitor will charge
until the potential difference between its plates is equal to the e.m.f. V0 of the
​

supply.

When the switch is moved to B, the capacitor will discharge through the
resistor.

When the switch makes contact with B, the current can be recorded at regular
intervals of time as the capacitor discharges by observing the ammeter
readings.

The current is seen to change rapidly at first, and then more slowly on a graph
of current against time;

More detailed analysis shows that the decrease is exponential – the current
decreases by the same fraction over equal time intervals.

Since charge is directly proportional to current and a capacitor charge is

proportional to potential difference, the graphs of the variation with time of

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 current, potential difference and charge are all identical and all represent an
exponential decay.

a. Graph of current against time for capacitor discharge

b. Graph of potential difference against time for capacitor discharge

c. Graph of charge against time for capacitor discharge

The key features of the discharge graphs are:

The shape of the current, potential difference and charge against time graphs
are identical

Each graph shows exponential decay curves with decreasing gradient

The initial value starts on the y-axis and decreases exponentially

= X0 e− RC , where R =Resistance, C =
t
Each graph represents X ​
​

Capacitance, and X =current, charge or voltage.

5.3.2 Time Constant

As time progresses, the exponential curve gets closer and closer to the time axis,
but never actually meets it. Thus, it is not possible to quote a time for the
capacitor to discharge completely. However, the rate at which the capacitor
discharges can be calculated using the time constant.

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 Time constant is the time taken for the charge of a capacitor to decrease to 0.37
of its original value.

This is represented by the Greek letter tau (τ) and measured in units of seconds
(s). It is calculated using the equation;

τ = RC 
Where:

R = resistance of the resistor (Ω)

C = capacitance of the capacitor (F)

To find the charge Q on the capacitor plates after a time t = CR, we substitute in
the exponential decay equation

t = RC 
t
Q = Q0 e− RC 
​
​

Q = Q0 e–RC/RC = Q0 e–1 = Q0 /e = Q0 /2.718

​ ​ ​ ​

So, time constant RC represents the amount of time needed to reach 1/e of the
original value. It can be defined in terms of charge, current or potential difference.

Important note:
In one time constant τ, the charge stored by the capacitor
drops to 1/e of its original value. In the next time constant 2τ , it
will drop by the same ratio, 1/e2 of the value at the start of the
decay

The rate at which a capacitor discharges depends on the resistance of the circuit.

5.3.3 Exponential Capacitance Equations

All exponential decay curves have an equation of the form

5 Capacitance 19
 X = X0 e(−kt) 
​

Where
X = quantity that is decaying
X0 = the value of X at time t = 0
​

e = exponential function
k= constant characteristic of the decay.
t = time in seconds
A large value of k means that the decay is rapid, and a small value means a slow
decay.
For a capacitor discharging through a resistor,
k = 1/τ 
Hence, the exponential decay of current on a discharging capacitor is defined by
the equation:
I = I0 e− RC 
t
​

Where:

I = current (A)
I0 = initial current before discharge (A)
​

e = the exponential function

t = time (s)
RC = resistance (Ω) × capacitance (F) = the time constant τ (s)

Since the current at any time is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the capacitor and the charge across the parallel plates, the equations for
exponential decay of potential difference and of charge on a discharging
capacitor are as follows;

V = V0 e− RC 
t

Where:
V = potential difference across the capacitor (V)

5 Capacitance 20
 V0 = initial potential difference across the capacitor (V)
​

Q = Q0 e− RC 
t
​

Where:

Q = charge on the capacitor plates (C)

Q0 = initial charge on the capacitor plates (C)
​

These equations show that the faster the time constant τ, the quicker the
exponential decay of the current when discharging.

If the resistance is high, the current will decrease and charge will flow from
the capacitor plates more slowly, meaning the capacitor will take longer to
discharge.

If the resistance is low, the current will increase and charge will flow from the
capacitor plates quickly, meaning the capacitor will discharge faster.

Also, how big the initial current/potential difference/charge affects the rate of
discharge. If the value is large, the capacitor will take longer to discharge.

Important note:

The symbol e represents the exponential constant, a number

that is approximately equal to e = 2.718... On a calculator it is
shown by the button ex . The inverse function of e is ln(y),
known as the natural logarithmic function. This is because, if ex 
= y, then x = ln (y). The 0.37 in the definition of the time
constant arises as a result of the exponential constant.

5 Capacitance 21
 Skill Check 3

1. If the 1000 μF was connected to A for a while and it becomes fully

charged;
i) What would be the ultimate voltage on the capacitor?

ii) What would be the charge on one of its plates?

2. The two way switch is now moved to position B and the capacitor will
discharge through the 15k ohms resistor. How long will the capacitor’s
voltage reading take to drop from 9.0V to 4.5V?

Solution

1. i) Since the capacitor is fully charged, the potential difference across

the capacitor will be 9.0V.

ii) The charge on one of the plates would be:

Q = CV = (1000) (9.0) = 9000 μC

5 Capacitance 22
 2. The formula used will be:
V = V0 e− RC 
t
​

V = 4.5
V0 = 9.0
​

R= 15000
C = 1000 ∗ 10−6 
∗
1000∗ 10−6 )
4.5 = 9e−t/(15000 

½ = e(−t/15) 
ln(1/2) = ln(e(−t/15) )
−ln2 = −t/15
t = 15ln2
t = 10.4s

5 Capacitance 23
 Skill Check 4

What can you comment about the current flow in the circuit?

Solution
Since the capacitor is initially uncharged, so V = 0, and the battery has
an e.m.f. of V0 Volts, the potential difference is initially maximum, and
​

therefore the current value is maximum;

IM AX = I0 = e.m.f./R
​ ​

(R = Resistance)

However, as the potential difference across the capacitor starts to grow

(with more and more electron deposition on the negative plate), the
potential difference between the battery and the capacitor starts to
decrease, causing the current (I) to decrease. The current, in a
charging-capacitive circuit, decreases exponentially according to the
following equation:
I = I0 e− RC 
t

5 Capacitance 24
 Points to Note
In a metal wire the current is carried by free electrons. These move in the
opposite direction to that of the conventional current.

Safe operating voltage is the maximum voltage a capacitor can withstand. If a

greater voltage is provided across its terminals, the capacitor short-circuits
through its dielectric.

For two identical capacitors in series, the combined capacitance is equal to

half of the value of each one.

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 For capacitors in series, the combined capacitance is always less than the
value of the smallest individual capacitance.

The charge on each capacitor in series is always the same, and it is limited by
the smallest capacitor size connected in series.

The equation for capacitors in series is similar to the equation for resistors in
parallel, and the equation for capacitors in parallel is similar to the equation for
resistors in series.

During the charging of a capacitor by a battery, at least half the work done by
the battery is wasted due to heat.

The symbol e represents the exponential constant, a number which is

approximately equal to e = 2.718... On a calculator it is shown by the button ex .
The inverse function of e is ln(y), known as the natural logarithmic function.
This is because, if ex = y, then x = ln (y).

The letter ‘C’ is used both as the symbol for capacitance as well as the unit of
charge (coulombs). Make sure you know which C the examiner is referring to.

The time it takes for a current to fall by a factor of 1/e is 1τ.

5 Capacitance 26