Foundations of logical
thinking
LOGIC
• The word Logic comes from the Greek word Logos, which means “words”,
“speech” or “reason”
• Logic can be defined as the science of reasoning
• It is concerned with studying how we can distinguish correct reasoning from
incorrect reasoning
• it focuses on rules, structures ad principle that ensure conclusions are validly derived
from given premises
• Logic is a non-empirical science:
• Non- empirical means it does no depend on experiments or physical observation for
its principles
• It is similar to mathematics – its truths are established thorough reasoning, not
laboratory testing
• Logic is not about studying how people actually think in their daily lives
Scope and purpose of logic
• Logic is an organized body of knowledge that:
o Evaluates arguments (decides if they are valid/ strong or invalid / weak)
o Guides in constructing good arguments
• Logic- serves as a criteria for judgment
Importance of logic
• Increases confidence in evaluating others arguments
• Strengthens the ability to make convincing arguments
• Improves clarity and consistency in reasoning
• Helps in evaluating news, social media posts and arguments with a
clear mind
• Ensure that choices are based on valid reasoning, not emotions or
assumptions
Argument
• Humans develop the ability t argue from an early age.
• childhood arguments are often emotional and unstructured
• Adults use arguments in important life decisions such as career
choice, higher education and relationships
• Reasoning becomes central, involving weighing pros and cons using
facts
• Argument: is not fighting
• Argument refers to presenting a reasoned case for a position
(different from quarrelling or personal attack, focus is on logic and
evidence)
• Self-argument: people often reason with themselves before
explaining their decisions to others. Self- arguments cats as a mental
rehearsal to refine thoughts
• Adults often engage in decisions on Social, political and religious issue
Reasons for studying Arguments
• Many people argue poorly due to lack of evidence or critical thinking
Common problems:
• Sharing unverified social media content
• Blindly accepting ideas without examining consequences
• Voting from habit rather than informed choice
• Choosing education path based on others choices
• Repeating others views
What is argument?
• An argument is a set of statements, (called premises) intended to
support or provide reasons for accepting another statement, called
the conclusion
• Examples:
1)Premise 1:All fruits have seeds
Premise 2:An apple is a fruit
Conclusion: therefore, an apple has seeds
2) Premise 1: Whenever I wash my car, it rains
Premise 2: I just washed my car
Premises : supply the
Conclusion: therefore, ?? evidence on which an
argument is based on
Components of an Argument
• Claims : Is the concluding statement that answers the
original focus question or problem
• Evidence : scientific data that supports the clam
• Reasoning :is the justification linking the claims and
supporting evidence
Components of an Argument
• Claims : the main point or statement
• Evidence : facts data or observations
supporting claims
]
R (connects proof to point)
• Reasoning : explanation of how or why
the evidence supports the claim
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING
• Traditionally arguments have been classified
into two types;
1. Deductive : type of logical reasoning that
General → specific
begins with general principles or rule and
applies it to specific case to arrive at a
conclusion
• conclusion necessarily follows from the
given premise or premises
• If premises are true, the conclusion must be
true
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
• Starts from a broad, general statement (or a
General → specific
set of statements) and narrows don to a
specific conclusion
• Structure : a deductive reasoning typically
consists of:
i. Premises: general statements, facts or
accepted rules
ii. Conclusion: a specific statement logically
derived from the premises
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
• Deductive reasoning follows a top-down
General → specific
approach:
• Top: starts with general laws, rules or →
theories
→
• Middle: Apply them to particular situation
→
• Bottom : arrive to a specific conclusion that
is logically certain if premises are true
INDUCTIVE REASONING
2. Inductive: type of logical reasoning that begins with specific
observations or cases and moves toward a general concussion
• The conclusion is probable, not certain
• Even if premises are true, the conclusion may still be false because it
goes beyond the observed data
• Builds general principles or rules based on repeated observations or
patterns
• Operates on the principle of probability, not logical necessity
INDUCTIVE REASONING
• Structure: includes:
Specific cases → pattern recognition → probable conclusion
• Premises and conclusions
• Inductive reasoning follows a bottom- up approach:
• Bottom : start with individual observations or
specific facts
• Middle: identify pattern, similarities or trends
• Top: form a general conclusion or theory based on
these patterns
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING
• Deductive and inductive reasoning differ not only in direction
(specific- to-general) but also in purpose
• In research :
• Deductive reasoning → tests existing theories
• Inductive reasoning → develops new theories
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING
• Deductive reasoning begin with a pre-existing theory or
general principle and examines whether specific
observations confirm or disconfirm it.
• The aim is to check the validity or applicability of theory
General → specific
in particular cases.
❖Process in research :
I. Start with theory: use an established theory as a
strong point
II. Form hypothesis: create testable statements based on
theory
III. Collect data: gather evidence
IV. Test the hypothesis: determine whether the results
support or contradict the theory
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING
• Inductive reasoning starts with observations and uses
Specific cases → pattern recognition → probable conclusion
them to build general principles or new theories
• The aim is to generate theoretical frameworks from
patterns found in data
❖Process in research:
• Start with observations: collect data from multiple
specific cases
• Identify patterns: look for similarities
• Form hypothesis: propose tentative explanation
• Develop theory: generalize the findings
