PE RF ECT

MODA LS
 We use ‘perfect modals’ to talk
about actions, events or
possibilities in the past. A ‘perfect
modal’ is a modal verb combined
with a present perfect verb form.
We often speak about the past,
and we often need to speak
W H AT A R E
about the past in order to explain
PERFECT mistakes or guess about
possibilities.
MODALS
HOW TO FORM PERFECT MODALS
To form a perfect modal, you use a modal verb followed by the verb have and then the
past participle of the main verb.

Subject + Modal Verb + Have + Past Participle

• Example: I could have gone to the party, but I was busy.

To make the sentence negative, add not after the modal verb.
• Example: I couldn't have gone to the party.

To make questions, we invert the subject with the modal verb.

• Would you have gone to the party?

THE PERFECT
MODALS • Would have done

• Could have done

• Should have done

• Must have done

• Can’t have done

• Might have done

• Needn’t have done

W O U L D ( N O T ) H A V E + PA S T
PA R T I C I P L E

We use this form to explain that our choice of action would be different to
an action performed by another person. It can only talk about impossible
things (past actions performed by another person which we cannot
change).
• I wouldn’t have sacked Susan. I would have given her an official warning.
(You sacked Susan, but this would be my choice of action)

• The client was 10 minutes late for his appointment, so Paul left the office
and went to lunch. I would have waited for at least 30 minutes.
• I wouldn’t have paid $500 dollars for that jacket.
COUL D (N OT ) HAV E + PAST
PAR TIC IPL E

• We use ‘could’ when something was possible in the past or there was a
probability, but it didn't happen. We use ‘couldn’t’ to express certainty that
something didn’t happen.

• I could have applied for a work visa when I was living in Japan but I decided to
return home instead. (I had the ability / opportunity but did not do the action)

• He bought an apartment in London for £500,000 but for the same price he could
have bought a beautiful house in the country.
• My brother couldn’t have caused this accident because he was at work.
S HOUL D ( NOT ) HAV E +
PA S T PA R T I C I P L E
This form is used to talk about an action which somebody DID do or DID NOT do,
but which we think was a good or bad idea.

• He should have bought the VW, not the Fiat. (He didn’t, but I think buying the
VW was a better choice)

• He failed his exams last week. He should have studied harder. (He didn’t study
hard)
• He shouldn’t have shouted. (He did, but the speaker thinks it was a bad idea)

• He shouldn’t have resigned from his job before he found a new one.” (He
resigned, but it was a mistake)
MUST H AVE +
This form expresses our certainty that
PA S T something was true.

PA R T I C I P L E • I think Paolo must have killed his wife. (I

am certain this happened)

• We sent everybody an email, so

Paul must have known that the meeting
had been cancelled.
• Bill didn't answer the phone when I
called him. He must have fallen asleep.
MI GH T/MAY (NOT) HAVE +
PA S T PA R T I C I P L E
We use this form to talk about past possibilities, but we aren’t sure.

• Paolo might have stolen the money. (It’s possible)

• Paul has visited the company several times, so he might have met the
sales manager already.

• Paolo wasn’t at the meeting, but he might not have received the email
asking him to attend.
 We use when we are sure (in our opinion)
something isn’t/wasn’t possible or did’t
happen.

• You can’t have seen Paolo in the office

yesterday; he’s in Brazil on holiday (so it
is not possible)

• She can’t have forgotten about the

meeting; I sent her an email about it
CAN’T HAVE + yesterday.

• He’s only 20 so he can’t have

PA S T finished university yet

PA R T I C I P L E
N E E D N ’ T H A V E + PA S T PA R T I C I P L E

This speaks about an action which a person DID do, but which was not
necessary.

• It didn’t rain today, so I needn’t have taken an umbrella to work. (I DID

take an umbrella, but it wasn’t necessary)

• You needn’t have bought me a birthday present. (Thank you, but it was
not necessary)

• Paul’s computer had a virus, but now it has been repaired, so he needn’t
have bought a new one.
EXERCISES
1. Sally looks worried . She ________________________ a problem with something (HAVE).

2. Bob ________________________ at school because I haven’t seen him all day (BE).

3. I ________________________ you the money. Why didn’t you ask me (LEND)

4. Mrs White bought a new fur coat ! - She ________________________ the lottery (WIN).

5. The street is wet this morning . I’m not sure but it ________________________ last night (RAIN).

6. We can’t wait any longer. Something ________________________ at once (DO).

7. He read the message, but he didn’t come, maybe he ________________________ it (UNDERSTAND).

8. Everyone shouted in fear. They ________________________ very afraid (BE).

9. He looked so tired when I saw him. He ________________________ so hard (WORK)

10. You were a fool to go skiing here. You ________________________ a leg (BREAK).
EXERCISES
1. Sally looks worried . She must have had a problem with something (HAVE).

2. Bob can’t have been at school because I haven’t seen him all day (BE).

3. I could have lent you the money. Why didn’t you ask me (LEND)

4. Mrs. White bought a new fur coat ! - She must have won the lottery (WIN).

5. The street is wet this morning . I’m not sure but it may /might have rained last night (RAIN).

6. We can’t wait any longer. Something must have done at once (DO).

7. He read the message, but he didn’t come, maybe he couldn’t have understood it (UNDERSTAND).

8. Everyone shouted in fear. They must have been very afraid (BE).

9. He looked so tired when I saw him. He must have worked so hard (WORK).

10. You were a fool to go skiing here. You couldn’t have broken a leg (BREAK).
EXERCISES
1. A: I called him yesterday, but he didn’t answer the phone.
B: He _____________ been was busy. He always answers his phone.

2. A: Yesterday, I couldn’t find my keys, and called a locksmith to open the door.
B: What a pity! You ____________ gotten very upset.

3. It was Jake’s off day yesterday. You ______________ found him in his office.

4. He ______________ come by train. It took him a long time to come here.

5. A: A woman opened the door for me. She was probably his wife.
B: He was not married. She ______________ been his wife.