​ ​ ​ ​ AC

Alternating current can be defined as the current whose magnitude and direction
changes with time.

Alternating emf or Voltage

It can be defined as the voltage whose magnitude and direction changes with time
and attains the same magnitude and direction after a definite time interval.

E = Eosin 𝛚t

where,
E = Instantaneous Voltage
Eo = Peak voltage
𝛚 = angular frequency

Average Current in AC

The sum of the instantaneous current values over one complete cycle is zero as it
varies sinusoidally, and the average current is zero.

Average Current over half cycle .

2𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = Π
= 0.637 Io

Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of AC

It is defined as that effective value of AC over a complete cycle which would

generate same amount of heat in a given resistor that is generated by a steady
current in the same resistor.
P = I2R = Io2Rsin2𝛚t
Average value of P over a cycle is
Pavg = <Io2Rsin2𝛚t>

Pavg = Io2R<sin2𝛚t>

Since, <sin2𝛚t> = ½

Pavg = ½ Io2R

Comparing it with DC Power Loss

P = I2R
2
Pavg = ½ Io2R = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 R
𝐼𝑂
I = Irms = = 0.707 Io
2

Similarly, we define the rms voltage or effective voltage by

𝑉𝑂
V = Vrms = = 0.707 Vo
2

It is customary to measure and specify rms values for ac quantities.

For example, the household line voltage of 220 V is an rms value with a peak
voltage of
Vo = 2 V = (1.414)*220 = 311 V

Ques. The instantaneous current from an AC source is given by I = 5sin314t.

What is the rms value of the current?

Ques. Calculate the instantaneous voltage for AC supply of 220 V and 50Hz.

Ques. The rms value of current in an AC circuit is 10 A. What is the peak

current?
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A RESISTOR

Vosin 𝛚t = I R

𝑉𝑜
I= 𝑅
sin 𝛚t

Since R is a constant,
I = Io sin𝛚t

where the current amplitude Io is ,

Io = Vo / R

Voltage and current are in phase with each other meaning both V and I reach zero,
minimum and maximum values at the same time.

Phasors
A phasor is a vector which rotates about the origin with angular speed 𝝎.
The vertical components of phasors V and I represent the sinusoidally varying
quantities V and i.

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO AN INDUCTOR

where (-L di/dt) is the self-induced Faraday emf in the inductor; and L is the
self-inductance of the inductor.

𝑉𝑚
di/dt = V/L = 𝐿
sin𝛚t
The dimension of inductive reactance XL is the same as that of resistance and
its SI unit is ohm (Ω).

Current in the inductor lags the voltage by 𝝿/2 or one-quarter (1/4) cycle.
The current phasor I is 𝝿/2 behind the voltage phasor V.

Power Consumption in an inductor.

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A CAPACITOR

When a capacitor is connected to a dc circuit, current will flow for the short
time required to charge the capacitor.
But in an ac source, the capacitor is alternately charged and discharged as the
current reverses each half cycle.

V = Q/C
Vm sin𝛚t = Q/C
i = dq/dt
The dimension of capacitive reactance XC is the same as that of resistance and its SI
unit is ohm (Ω)

The current phasor I is π/2 ahead of the voltage phasor V.

Power Consumption in a capacitor.

Thus, we see that in the case of an inductor, the current lags the voltage by π/2 and
in the case of a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by π/2.
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

AC current in each element is the same at any time, having the same amplitude and
phase.

I = Iosin(𝝎t + 𝟇)
where 𝟇 is the phase difference between the voltage across the source and the
current in the circuit .
Let VL , VR , VC , and V represent the voltage across the inductor, resistor, capacitor
and the source.
The length of these phasors or the amplitude of VR , VC and VL are: VRm = im R, VCm =
im XC , VLm = im XL
Since VC and VL are always along the same line and in opposite directions, they can
be combined into a single phasor (VC + VL ) which has a magnitude (VCm – VLm).

Vm2 = VR2 + (VCm – VLm)2

= (im R)2 + (im XC - im XL)2
= im2 (R2 + (XC - XL)2)
2 2
im = Vm / (𝑅 + (𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋𝐿)
im = Vm / Z , gives the current amplitude
2 2
Where Z = (𝑅 + (𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋𝐿) is called the Impedance of the circuit.
tan𝟇 = VCm – VLm / VR
tan𝟇 = XC - XL / R

If XC > XL , 𝟇 is positive and the circuit is predominantly capacitive, meaning current

leads the voltage.
If XC < XL , 𝟇 is negative and the circuit is predominantly inductive, meaning current
lags behind the voltage.

Resonance

Resonance is the phenomenon when a system is driven by an energy source at a

frequency that is near the natural frequency, then the amplitude of oscillation is found
to be large.
Use - tuning mechanism of a radio or a TV set
For an RLC circuit driven with voltage of amplitude Vm and frequency 𝝎
2 2
im = Vm / (𝑅 + (𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋𝐿)
im = Vm / Z
With XC = 1/𝝎C and XL = 𝝎L
So, if 𝝎 is varied , at particular frequency 𝝎o , XC = XL, and the impedance is
minimum , (Z = R) .
This frequency is called the resonant frequency:
XC = XL
1/𝝎oC = 𝝎oL
𝝎o= 1 / 𝐿𝐶
At resonant frequency, the current amplitude is maximum
im = Vm / R

I - 𝝎 graph

Z - 𝝎 graph
POWER IN AC CIRCUIT: THE POWER FACTOR

V = Vm sin 𝝎t
i = im sin(𝝎t + 𝟇)

Instantaneous Power

​ [2sinAsinB = cos(A-B) - cos(A+B)]

Average Power

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ [ <cos(2wt + 𝟇)> = 0 ]

Power dissipated depends not only on the voltage and current but also on the cosine
of the phase angle 𝟇 between them. The quantity cos𝟇 is called the power factor.

Case (i) Resistive circuit: 𝟇 = 0, cos 𝟇 =1.There is maximum power dissipation.

Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit: 𝟇 = 90, cos 𝟇 =0, no power is
dissipated even though a current is flowing in the circuit. This current is sometimes
referred to as wattless current.
Transformer

Construction
A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other and they are
wound on a soft-iron core.

Working
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary coil, the resulting current
produces an alternating magnetic flux which links the secondary and induces an emf
in it. The value of this emf depends on the number of turns in the secondary.

induced emf દs , in the secondary with Ns turns is

The alternating flux 𝝓 also induces an emf, called back emf in the primary.

𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆
𝑉𝑝
= 𝑁𝑝

If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the power
input is equal to the power output, and since p = i v

ipvp = isvs

𝑖𝑝 𝑣𝑠 𝑁𝑆
𝑖𝑠
= 𝑣𝑝
= 𝑁𝑝

Step - Up transformer

if the secondary coil has a greater number of turns than the primary (Ns > Np ), the
voltage is stepped up (Vs > Vp ).
There is less current in the secondary coil than in the primary coil.

Ex - if the primary coil of a transformer has 100 turns and the secondary has 200
turns, Ns / Np = 2 . Thus, a 220V input at 10A will step-up to 440 V output at 5.0 A.
Step - Down transformer

if the secondary coil has a less number of turns than the primary (Ns < Np ), the
voltage is stepped up (Vs < Vp ).
There is more current in the secondary coil than in the primary coil.

small energy losses do occur due to the following reasons :

i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the flux due to
primary passes through the secondary.

It can be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils one over the other.

ii) Resistance of the windings: Energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire .

In high current, low voltage windings, these are minimised by using thick wire.

iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron
core and causes heating.

The effect is reduced by using a laminated core.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y-569cdIPeM

iv) Hysteresis loss: The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the
alternating magnetic field resulting in expenditure of energy.

Using a magnetic material which has a low hysteresis loss.