Definition.
An Operating system is a set of programs that is used to manage the basic hardware
resources of a computer and that controls the execution of user applications.
Examples of Operating Systems:
a. Windows
b. macOS
c. Linux
d. UNIX
e. Android
f. DOS (Disk Operating System).
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The operating system consists two main parts:
Shell
This is the outer part of an operating system used to interact with the
operating system.
The shell acts an interface to kernel, hiding complexity of kernel's
functions from users. Takes commands from user and executes
kernel's functions
Kernel
Core component of Operating System, interacts directly with
hardware, provides low level services to upper layer components.
The kernel is responsible for managing and controlling computer
resources such as the processor, main memory, storage devices, input
devices, output device and communication devices.
Reasons why an Operating system is needed in a computer (why operating systems
were developed).
i. Modern computer systems are so complex & fast such that they need internal
control.
ii. To ensure that the full system software facilities are readily available.
iii. Due to the complexity of systems, jobs need to be controlled in what they are
allowed to do for security.
iv. To increase the throughput, i.e., to increase the amount of data that can be
processed through the system in a given period of time.
v. Improve communication between the user & the computer.
vi. To make complex tasks very simple for the user to carry out.
vii. It helps the computer to correct any problem that might occur.
- When an error occurs that can cause the computer to stop functioning, a
diagnostic message is displayed.
- The meaning of the message is then checked in the computer operations
manual.
viii. Reduces job setup time.
- When one job is running, other programs can be read onto the job queue. The
Input/Output devices can also be made ready without delay.
Functions of an Operating System.
1. Job scheduling.
- The OS arranges & loads programs in order to provide a continuous sequence
of processing & also provide the appropriate responses to events.
- The processor can handle only one task at a time. Therefore, in a situation
where more than one application program is occupying the main storage, the OS
has to determine which task will be processed first and ensures that the one that
is currently being processed is closely monitored to avoid wasting time in the
processor.
- The jobs are allocated priorities so as to ensure that there is continuous
processing until all the jobs within the memory are executed. This ensures
that the CPU does not remain idle at any given instance.
- Some of the job scheduling functions include:
• Controlling the loading & running of programs.
• Communicating directly with users and/or the operator.
• Dealing with user commands to organize files and run
programs.
2. Resource control and allocation.
- The OS controls the selection & operation of hardware devices used for input,
output and storage.
- The OS determines which task uses a particular resource and at what time. To
do this, it gives each resource a unique identification number called an Interrupt
number so that, when two tasks request to use a resource at the same time, the
one with higher priority interrupt is granted control.
- This prevents an undesirable situation called deadlock that occurs when a
particular task holds a needed resource & refuses to release it for use by other
tasks
3. Memory allocation & loading of programs.
- Programs must be loaded into memory before they can be executed, and moved
out of memory when they are no longer required. Therefore, before processing
starts, the OS ensures that the programs are transferred into the available
memory location in the Main memory from the backing store, e.g. a disk.
- At any one given time, a number of tasks may require the memory so
that they can be accessed & processed by the computer. The computer
memory is a scarce resource, and therefore, the OS must determine which
task will remain in memory awaiting for execution and which one will be
sent back to secondary storage to wait.
NB/Virtual memory refers to a memory management method where computers use
secondary memory to compensate for the scarcity of physical memory.
Virtual memory enables data that is in RAM and not currently being used to be
transferred to the hard disk. This frees up room in RAM for other programs and data. When the
data on the hard disk is needed again, any other unused data is transferred to the hard disk before
the original data is transferred back to RAM.
4. Input/Output devices & ports management.
- Every computer has many Input & Output (I/O) devices. The OS controls
the input from & output to the various devices. It also tries to monitor the
state of each I/O device and signals any faults detected.
- During the course of their execution, programs will request the use of an Input
or Output device. In a multi- user system, conflicts are likely to occur when one
program requests a device that is being used by another program. Therefore, the
OS will control allocation of I/O devices and attempt to resolve any conflicts
that arise.
- Because most input/output devices are slower than the processor, the OS has
to control the flow of data from the time of input to the time the user receives
it as information. It ensures that the right data reaches the processor at the
right time.
- The OS also defines the various input/output ports found on the computer, e.g.,
printer port.
5. Error reporting & correction routines.
- The OS has many ways of reporting to the user of any errors that occur
during program execution. It does this by monitoring the status of the
computer system & performing error checks on both hardware and software.
- When the user makes an error, the OS through the Kernel determines the
cause of the error, and prints diagnostic messages on the screen
suggesting appropriate routines of how the error can be corrected.
- In case of a fatal error that cannot be corrected, the program will be suspended
permanently. E.g., the user program will prematurely terminate when it
encounters an illegal operation, such as, dividing a no. by 0 or if it attempts to
read a data file that had not been opened.
6. Interrupt handling.
- An Interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in
a program.
- Each hardware device communicates to the processor using a special number
called the Interrupt Request number (IRQ). Therefore, when an interrupt
occurs, control is passed to the Kernel, which determines the cause of the
interrupt. The processor stops executing the current program to wait for the
corrective response of the user. Control is returned to the program that was
interrupted once corrective action has been taken.
Some causes of Interrupt.
i. An Interrupt caused by Power failure.
- The Kernel saves vital information using the dying power supply so
that it can be restarted when power is returned.
ii. Arithmetic or logic errors.
- When the ALU detects that an error has occurred, (e.g., the output
may be requested to a non- existent device) it generates a signal that
causes an interrupt. Control is transferred to the Kernel, which
indicates the appropriate error correction routines.
iii. Hardware malfunction, e.g. parity errors.
- The I/O control for each device & its associated hardware normally
takes care of parity checking. If a parity error is detected, the Kernel is
notified by an interrupt.
- Device driver - a software that the OS uses to control a specific piece of
hardware.
7. Management of secondary storage devices.
- The OS manages the storage & retrieval of data on secondary storage devices.
It also utilizes the free space on hard disks to enhance the performance of the
computer by temporarily holding tasks on it that were in RAM ready for
processing but have to wait for sometime.
Classification of Operating Systems.
- The OS determines determine the type of processing that a computer system is able
to perform, since it controls the allocation & use of the computer resources.
- Operating systems can be classified according to:
1. Number of tasks that the system can perform concurrently. Single-tasking
(program) operating system.
Multi-tasking operating system.
2. Number of users the system can support at the same time. Single-user
operating systems.
Multi-user operating systems.
3. Human Computer interface (i.e., how the user & the computer
interacts). Command line.
Menu driven
interface.
Graphical
user
interface
(GUI).
Classification According to Tasks Handled Concurrently.
Single-tasking OS.
Single-tasking OS allows only one user-program in the main memory to be
processed at a particular time. This means that, the user can only run one
interactive program at a time. The user must then exit from the program before
loading & running another program.
Example of a single user OS;
MS-DOS.
Multi-tasking (Multiprogramming) OS.
A Multi-tasking OS allows a single CPU to execute/process more than one
program, all of which are in memory, at the same time.
Each program is allocated a time-slice. In this case, the programs take turns at
short intervals of processing time. The CPU switches its attention between
programs as it receives requests for processing, executing statements from one
program, and then from another.
The programs to be run are loaded into the memory and the CPU begins
execution of the first one. When the request is satisfied, the second program is
brought into memory and execution starts on the second program, and so on.
Note. In multi-programming, the computer is able to work on several programs at
the same time.
It works on the programs on sequence, one after the other, and that at any given
instant it executes instructions from one program only. However, the computer
works so quickly that it appears to be executing the programs simultaneously.
Classification According to Number of Users.
Single-user OS.
A single-user OS is designed to be used by only one person. It allow only one
user/person to operate the machine at a time in an interactive, conversational
mode, and runs only one user program at a time, e.g. MS- DOS.
Multi-user (or multi access) OS.
A multi-user OS allows more than one user ( many people) to interactively
use/access the computer at the same time.
Examples;
UNIX,
Novell Netware, Ms-Windows 2000, Ms-Windows NT,
Linux, etc
Classification According to Human Computer Interface (HCI).
The term Human Computer Interface (HCI) refers to the method of interaction
between the computer & the user, and determines how easily the user can operate
the computer.
The HCI enables communication to & from between the user and the computer.
User-friendliness.
HCI is expected to be “user-friendly”, i.e., it should be one that the end-user
finds helpful, and easy to learn & use.
Features/characteristics of a user-friendly HCI.
i. It should be relatively easy for the user to try to start using the system.
ii. The system should be self-contained, so that the user is not forced into accessing
manuals.
iii. The amount of effort & the information required for the user to get the
system complete required tasks should be minimal.
iv. The system should be robust & reliable, i.e., the user should be protected from
unexpected system actions, including system failures.
v. The system should be able to adjust to different levels of expertise between
users & also as users grow in competence.
vi. The user should be made to feel in control of what is going on.
vii. The system should behave in a logical & consistent manner, enabling the
user to reason about what is going on and apply what has been learned.
Types of User interfaces.
- There are different types of Human Computer Interfaces: -
1. Command driven interface.
2. Menu driven interface.
3. Graphical User Interface (GUI).
Command driven interface.
This is an interaction between the user & the computer that requires the use of
commands
The user types a command at the prompt found on a command line. The
computer then reads instructions from the command line and executes them.
Example;
To copy a file called Fruits.Dat from Hard disk C to Floppy disk A using MS-
DOS; type C:\ >COPY Fruits.Dat A:\ (press the Enter key for the command to be
executed).
Commands enable the user to quickly instruct the computer what to do.
Command-driven software is more flexible, but it is more difficult to learn.
The user must know what commands are available, what they do & how
they should be typed. For this reason, commands are most popular with
experienced technical persons, such as computer Operators, Programmers or in
situations where the end-user continually works with the same program and
has therefore mastered the commands. To make commands more user-
friendly, the following points need to be observed: -
i. The command words used should be descriptive VERBS that clearly
convey the intended action, e.g., PRINT, COPY, RENAME, DELETE,
etc.
ii. Unique abbreviations should be provided for more experienced
users, e.g., PRI, COP, REN, DEL, CHKDSK, etc.
iii. Multiple items on a single command line should
ALWAYS be separated by blank spaces. E.g., PRINT can
be used in the following ways: -
PRINT Report1 – prints the named document on the default printer.
PRINT Report1 Report2 Report3 – prints the three documents on the
default printer.
Examples of Command line interfaces:
MS-DOS,
Early versions of PC-DOS, OS/2, and UNIX.
Disadvantages of using command driven interfaces
They are more difficult to learn.
The user must know the
command to type. It is
less user-friendly.
It is not easy to use, i.e., one is required to master the command format/syntax.
Menu driven interface.
This type of interface provides the user with a list of program commands
displayed on the screen to choose from & a simple means of selecting between
them.
To activate a choice in the menu, one can use the Enter key, or move the
cursor until it is positioned at the desired choice & then press the activation
key so that the system can start acting upon the information given.
This interface is suitable for beginners and infrequent users who may have
difficulties in remembering commands.
There are 2 types of menus: -
Pull-down menus – are special types of menu used mostly in Windows.
Pop-up menus & Pop-down menus. These menus are made to appear above
or below an item on the screen in order to elicit/obtain a choice from a user.
Later versions of DOS have a menu driven interface called the DOS Shell or
DOS Editor.
Advantages of Menu driven interfaces
Menus provide many options to select from.
The user is presented with a choice and therefore, does not need to
master any commands. They are easier to use.
Graphical User Interface (GUI).
This is an interaction between the user & computer that involves issuing of
commands to the computer by activating certain small graphic images
displayed on the screen called Icons.
To issue a command, the icons can be selected using a pointing device like a
Mouse.
GUI is mostly found on Workstations or PCs fitted with graphic adapters able
to support highresolution graphics.
Examples of GUI based OS;
Presentation
manager of
OS/2, Ms-
Windows,
Linux,
Apple Macintosh.
Features of a graphical user interface.
Programs are represented graphically by use of Icons.
Commands are selected and issued using pointing devices,
e.g., Mouse, trackball. There is use of pull-down menus.
Programs open by displaying windows.
Advantages of using GUI based OS
They are user friendly.
Easy to learn & use.
Factors to Consider when Choosing an Operating System.
- The following factors should be considered when choosing an operating system for a
computer;
1. Hardware configuration of the computer, e.g., RAM memory size, hard disk
capacity, type of processor, etc.
2. Basic design of the computer, - i.e., is it an IBM or IBM compatible, or an Apple
computer?
3. Hardware compatibility.
4. User needs (requirements), i.e., the applications intended for the computer.
5. User friendliness or Human computer interface, i.e., is it Command line
based, Menu-driven or a Graphical user interface?
6. Availability in the market, e.g. Microsoft Windows based OS are very common.
7. Portability.
8. Cost – how expensive the OS is.
9. Reliability, i.e., can it run without crashing or hanging (stop responding to
commands).
10. The method of communication with the computer, e.g. the number of peripherals.
11. The method of operating the computer.
