1️⃣ PHYLUM PORIFERA (SPONGES)  Body Plan: Segmented into tagmata (head,

 Kingdom: Animalia thorax, abdomen)

 Branch: Parazoa (lack true tissues)  Circulatory System: Open
 Symmetry: Mostly asymmetrical  Respiration:
 Tissues/Organs: Absent o Aquatic: gills
 Key Cell Types: o Terrestrial: tracheae, book lungs
o Choanocytes (collar cells): flagellated,  Excretion: Malpighian tubules
generate water current and trap food  Eyes: Compound and simple (ocelli)
o Amoebocytes: distribute nutrients and  Classes:
secrete spicules/spongin o 🔸 Chelicerata – Spiders, ticks,
 Skeleton: Internal, made of spicules (CaCO₃ scorpions, horseshoe crabs
or silica) or spongin o 🔸 Crustacea – Crabs, shrimp,
 Feeding: Filter feeders lobsters, barnacles
 Reproduction: o 🔸 Hexapoda – Insects (head, thorax,
o Asexual: fragmentation abdomen; 6 legs; wings)
o Sexual: choanocyte-derived sperm,
o 🔸 Myriapoda – Centipedes (1 pair
internal fertilization
legs/segment), millipedes (2 pairs)
 Larval Stage: Free-swimming, adult: sessile
 Species: ~1.2 million
 Habitat: Mostly marine, some freshwater
 Species: ~26,000
4️⃣ PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
 Symmetry: Radial (adults), bilateral (larvae)
2️⃣ PHYLUM CNIDARIA
 Development: Deuterostome
 Symmetry: Radial
 Unique Features:
 Body Plans: Diploblastic (ectoderm +
o Water vascular system
endoderm), no organs
o Tube feet for movement, feeding,
 Unique Feature: Nematocysts (stinging respiration
capsules in nematocytes) o Endoskeleton of calcium carbonate
 Body Forms:  Regeneration: Many can regrow body parts
o Polyp: sessile, cylindrical
 Habitat: Exclusively marine
o Medusa: motile, umbrella-shaped
 Examples: Sea stars, sea urchins, sand
 Skeleton: Some form exoskeletons (e.g.,
dollars, sea cucumbers
coral CaCO₃)
 Species: ~12,000
 Reproduction:
Classes:
o Alternation between polyp and
o Asteroidea Sea stars (starfish)
medusa
o Sexual: gametes from medusae or
o Ophiuroidea Brittle stars, basket
polyps
stars
o Asexual: budding, fragmentation
o Echinoidea Sea urchins, sand
 Classes: dollars
o 🔹 Anthozoa – Corals, sea anemones o Holothuroidea Sea cucumbers
(no medusa, reef builders) o Crinoidea Sea lilies, feather stars
o 🔹 Hydrozoa – Hydras, Portuguese
man-of-war (colonial) 5️⃣ CLASS REPTILIA (Phylum: Chordata)
o 🔹 Scyphozoa – True jellyfish  Key Traits:
(dominant medusa) o Amniotic egg with leathery shell
o 🔹 Cubozoa – Box jellies (toxic, image- o Dry, scaly skin (keratinized)
forming eyes) o Ectothermic (cold-blooded)
o 🔹 Staurozoa – Star jellies (sessile, o Lungs only (no cutaneous respiration)
medusa-like)  Reproduction: Mostly internal fertilization
 Species: ~10,000  Orders (from Chapter 35.8):
o 🐍 Squamata – Lizards and snakes
3️⃣ PHYLUM ARTHROPODA (movable jaws)
 Symmetry: Bilateral, segmented o 🐢 Testudines – Turtles and tortoises
 Skeleton: Chitinous exoskeleton (must be (bony/plated shell)
molted = ecdysis) o 🦎 Rhynchocephalia – Tuataras
 Appendages: Jointed, specialized (ancient lineage)
 o 🐊 Crocodilia – Crocodiles and Animal Phylogeny
alligators (4-chambered heart) Learning Outcomes
1. Identify the characters that distinguish the
6️⃣ CLASS MAMMALIA (Phylum: Chordata) major animal phyla.
 Key Characteristics: 2. Identify patterns of convergent evolution in
o Hair significant morphological and developmental
o Mammary glands (milk) characters.
o Endothermy (4-chambered heart, 3. Identify the placement of humans among the
diaphragm) animal phyla.
o Placenta (except in monotremes)
o Heterodont teeth (specialized) 🔹 Phylogenetic Understanding & Disagreements
 Digestive adaptations:  There is little disagreement among biologists
o Ruminants (multi-chamber stomach) about the placement of most animals into phyla.
o Hindgut fermenters (cecum  Zoologists disagree on the status of some
digestion) phyla, particularly those with few members or
 Reproductive Groups: recently discovered ones.
o 🔹 Monotremes – Egg-laying  The diversity of animals is described in tables
(platypus, echidna) 33.1 and 33.2, which cover 20 animal phyla.
o 🔹 Marsupials – Pouched mammals
(kangaroo, opossum) 🔹 Traditional Phylogeny vs Molecular Data
o 🔹 Placentals – Internal development  Traditionally, the phylogeny of animals has
via placenta (majority of mammals) been inferred using:
 Adaptations: o Features of anatomy
o Flight in bats o Aspects of embryological
o Diverse diets (herbivore, carnivore, development
omnivore)  However, in the past 30 years:
o Social structures (e.g., primates, o Gene sequence data have
cetaceans) accumulated for all animal groups.
 Species: ~5,000+ o Phylogenies from different molecules
sometimes suggest different
evolutionary relationships.
7️⃣ PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
o Combining multiple genes has
 Body Plan:
resolved the relationships of most
o Head-foot: for locomotion
phyla.
o Visceral mass: contains organs
o Current studies use sequences from
o Mantle: secretes shell (in most)
hundreds of genes.
 Coelomate, soft-bodied
 Unique structure: Radula (rasping tongue)
🔹 Molecular Data and Problematic Groups
 Circulation:
 Molecular data help resolve:
o Open in most
o Groups that didn’t fit well in the
o Closed in cephalopods (squid,
traditional phylogeny
octopus)
o Particularly helpful for animals such as
 Classes:
parasites, whose anatomy,
o 🐌 Gastropoda – Snails, slugs (coiled
physiology, and behavior have been
shell) greatly altered due to dependence on
o 🐚 Bivalvia – Clams, oysters (two-part hosts.
shell, no radula)
o 🐙 Cephalopoda – Octopus, squid 🔹 Current vs Traditional Views
(intelligent, closed circulation)  Molecular-based phylogenies share deep
o 🐜 Polyplacophora – Chitons (8- structure with traditional ones.
plated shell)  Figure 33.5 summarizes animal phylogeny
o 🐚 Scaphopoda – Tusk shells from morphological, molecular, life history,
o 🐌 Monoplacophora – Primitive, deep- and other data.
sea mollusks  Porifera (sponges):
 Species: ~150,000 o Now considered a monophyletic
group
 o Shares a common ancestor with other o The state of the internal cavity has
animals evolved more often than previously
o Supported by molecular data realized
 Among remaining animals (Eumetazoa): o It’s not reliable for inferring
o Cnidarians branch off before the origin relationships
of bilaterally symmetrical animals PROTOSOMES CONSIST OF SPIRALIANS AND
(Bilateria) ECDYSOZOANS
 Early in their history, protostomes divided into
🔹 Reassessment of Relationships two clades:
 The phylogeny of deuterostomes has not o Spiralians
changed much. o Ecdysozoans (figure 33.5)
 The phylogeny of protostomes has been
altered by molecular data. 🔹 Spiralians
 Spiralian animals:
🔹 Key Discovery: Segmentation and Molting o Grow by gradual addition of mass to
 Annelids and arthropods were thought the body
closely related due to segmentation. o Undergo spiral cleavage (figure 33.4)
 Molecular data show they belong to separate  Two main groups of spiralians:
clades. o Lophotrochozoa
 Now: o Platyzoa
o Arthropods are grouped with  Lophotrochozoans:
protostomes that molt their cuticles. o Move by muscular contractions
o These are called Ecdysozoans o Include most protostomes with a
("molting animals"). coelom
✅ Molecular data revealed:  Platyzoans:
 Segmentation evolved convergently. o Mostly acoelomates
 Molting evolved only once. o Move by ciliary action

🔹 Enigmatic Phyla 🔹 Ecdysozoans

 Phylum Ctenophora (comb jellies):  Ecdysozoans are animals that molt (figure
o Considered diploblastic or 33.6)
triploblastic  Molting (ecdysis) seems to have evolved only
o Thought to have both complete gut once in the animal kingdom
and blind gut  Of the numerous phyla of protostomes in
 Phylum Chaetognatha (arrow worms): Ecdysozoa:
o Considered both coelomate and o Arthropoda contains the largest
pseudocoelomate number of described species of any
o Unclear if protostome or phylum
deuterostome
o Their placement in phylogenies varies 🔷 DEUTEROSTOMES INCLUDE CHORDATES AND
by method used ECHINODERMS
 Deuterostomes consist of fewer phyla and
🔹 Morphology-Based Phylogeny and the Coelom species than protostomes
 Zoologists previously believed:  They are more uniform, despite great
o First animals were acoelomate differences in appearance
o Some evolved pseudocoelom  Examples:
o Then some evolved coelom o Echinoderms (e.g., sea stars)
 Current view: o Chordates (e.g., humans)
o Coelom appears to have evolved once  Shared characteristics:
in the ancestor of protostomes and o A mode of development that is
deuterostomes evidence of evolution from a
o Some protostomes became common ancestor
acoelomate or pseudocoelomate o Clearly separates them from other
secondarily animals
 Now understood: Porifera (Sponges)
  Monophyletic, shares common ancestor with PARAZOA: ANIMALS THAT LACK SPECIALIZED
other animals. TISSUES
 Previously thought to be two or three SPONGES
unrelated groups, but molecular data confirm Learning Outcomes
unity. 1. Describe the different types of cells in the
sponge body.
🔹 Eumetazoa 2. Explain the function of choanocytes.
 Remaining animals beyond Porifera.
 Cnidarians branch off before Bilateria (before 🔹 Sponges (Phylum Porifera)
bilateral symmetry evolved).  Parazoa (“near animals”) = animals that:
o Lack definite symmetry
🔹 Protostome vs Deuterostome Phylogeny o Do not possess tissues
 Deuterostome branch hasn’t changed much.  Includes only sponges (Phylum Porifera)
 Protostome branch has changed  Sponges are so different that some scientists
significantly. believed:
Key Findings: o Sponges were not closely related to
 Annelids and arthropods are not close other animals
relatives despite segmentation. o Animal life may have had two separate
origins
 Arthropods are grouped with molting
protostomes → Ecdysozoans.  Today:
o Most systematists agree that Parazoa
✔️ Segmentation evolved convergently,
and Eumetazoa share a common
✔️ Molting evolved only once ancestor
o Therefore, animal life had a single
🔹 Unresolved Phyla origin
 Ctenophora (comb jellies):
o Considered diploblastic/triploblastic 🔹 Sponge Body Organization
o May have complete or blind gut  Sponges have loose body organization, but
 Chaetognatha (arrow worms): are truly multicellular
o Could be  26,000 marine species
coelomate/pseudocoelomate
 ~150 freshwater species
o Protostome or deuterostome? Still
 Occur at all depths, including the deep sea
unclear.
 Shapes:
📌 Placement in phylogeny varies by method o Some are radially symmetrical (few)
📌 Further research is needed o Most lack symmetry
o Can be low encrusting or erect and
🔷 MORPHOLOGY-BASED PHYLOGENY FOCUSED lobed, in complex patterns (figure
ON THE STATE OF THE COELOM 33.7a)
 Old belief:
o First animals = acoelomate 🔹 Sponge Life Cycle and Habitat
o Then → pseudocoelomate  Larval sponges = free-swimming
o Then → coelomate  After attachment:
❌ Linear evolution like that is rare o They metamorphose into sessile
 Now known: adults (anchored and immobile)
o Coelom evolved once in ancestor of  Adults defend themselves by producing
protostomes + deuterostomes repellent chemicals
o One clade reverted to acoelomate o Deters predators and organisms that
o Pseudocoeloms evolved multiple might overgrow them
times o Attracts interest from pharmaceutical
companies
Summary of Coelom Evolution:
 All deuterostomes = coelomate 🔹 Sponge Cell Types
 Protostomes = mixed (some acoelomate,  Lack:
some pseudocoelomate, some coelomate) o Head
 Some acoelomates arose secondarily o Appendages
o Mouth
o Anus
 o Organized internal structures o Capture food particles
 Contain several cell types, each with o Engulf and digest particles (mainly
specialized functions (figure 33.7b) bacteria)
 Unique ability:
o Differentiate and dedifferentiate 🔹 Reproduction
o If sponge cells are separated (e.g.,  Asexual:
through a sieve): o Can reproduce by fragmentation
 They reassemble into a (each grows into a new sponge)
functional sponge  Sexual:
 Not seen in any other animal o Sperm: transformed choanocytes,
released into water
🔹 Sponge Body Layers o Another sponge captures sperm via
 Small sponge = vaselike shape choanocyte, delivers it to egg in
 Has three functional layers: mesohyl
1. Inner layer (facing internal cavity): o Eggs may also be transformed
o Flagellated cells called choanocytes choanocytes
(collar cells)  Fertilization:
o Larger sponges have many small o Some species: development of
chambers connected by channels externally ciliated larva occurs
o Water exits via osculum (plural: within mother
oscula) o Others: fertilized egg is released,
2. Outer epithelium: develops externally
o Flattened cells, similar to outer layers o After planktonic larval stage, settles
of other animals into sessile adult
o Pores (ostia) allow water in
o Some epithelial cells surround ostia
and can contract to close them EUMETAZOA: ANIMALS WITH TRUE TISSUES
📌 No nervous system, so actions aren't coordinated CNIDARIANS
3. Middle layer (mesohyl): Learning Outcomes
o Gelatinous, protein-rich matrix 1. Explain the defining feature of cnidarians.
o Contains: 2. Differentiate between cnidarians and
 Amoeboid cells ctenophores.
 Eggs 3. Discuss the question of symmetry of
 Cells that secrete spicules or ctenophores.
spongin
🔹 General Overview
🔹 Skeleton and Materials  Eumetazoa contains animals that evolved the
 Skeleton composed of: first key transition in the animal body plan:
o Spicules (calcium carbonate or silica distinct tissues.
needles)  Embryonic cell layers differentiate into adult
o Spongin (tough protein fibers) tissues and body plans.
 Spicules may reach 1 meter in deep-sea  Developmental origins:
sponges o Ectoderm: epidermis and nervous
 Bath sponge = natural spongin skeleton system
o Endoderm: digestive tissue
🔹 Function of Choanocytes (gastrodermis)
 Resemble protists with a single flagellum o Mesoderm (in Bilateria): muscles
 Flagella circulate water, bringing in:  Eumetazoans also evolved body symmetry:
o Food o Radial and bilateral symmetry
o Oxygen
o Carrying out waste 🔹 All Cnidarians are Carnivores
 Large sponges:  ~10,000 species; mostly marine, few
o Convoluted inner walls increase freshwater
surface area  Diploblastic, radially symmetrical, and have
o Can propel >20 L of water per cm³ per distinct tissues
day  Do not have:
 Choanocytes also: o Organs
 o Reproductive, circulatory, digestive, o Fluid must remain under pressure
or excretory systems (mouth seals it)
 Can: o Can bend and extend tentacles
o Reproduce
o Exchange gases Skeleton
o Capture/digest prey  Many polyps build external skeletons (chitin
o Distribute organic molecules or calcium carbonate)
 Nervous system:  In colonial species (e.g., corals), skeletons
o No brain or ganglion connect polyps
o Latticework with junctions (like  Some polyps have internal skeletons
bilaterians)  Some (like sea anemones) have no skeleton
o Touch receptors  All medusae are solitary, form no skeleton
o Some have gravity/light receptors,
and even image-forming eyes 🔷 CNIDARIAN LIFE CYCLE
 Varies:
🔹 Nematocysts: Prey Capture o Some exist only as polyps
 Unique to phylum Cnidaria o Others only as medusae
 Located on tentacles surrounding the mouth o Many alternate between both phases
 Microscopic intracellular structures 📌 Both phases are diploid
 Medusae → form gametes
🔷 CNIDARIAN BODY PLANS o Separate sexes: individual is male or
Two Forms (figure 33.9): female
1. Polyp o Fertilization = zygote
o Cylindrical o Develops into planula larva (ciliated,
o Mouth at one end, surrounded by planktonic)
tentacles o Metamorphoses into polyp
o Attached at opposite end o Polyp → produces medusae
o Can be solitary or part of a colony asexually
2. Medusa  Some species:
o Umbrella-shaped / discoidal o Planula may become medusa directly
o Mouth and tentacles on one side (no polyp)
o Free-living, floating/swimming o Polyp can form gametes directly
🦎 Both have same morphology: o Asexual polyp production: budding,
Mouth opens into gastrovascular cavity, surrounded division, fragmentation
by tentacles
Extracellular Digestion
Structure and Function  Major innovation
 Single opening → gastrovascular cavity:  Digestive enzymes released into
o Site of: gastrovascular cavity
 Digestion  Partially digest prey
 Gas exchange  Fragments phagocytosed by cells
 Waste discharge  Allows feeding on larger prey than sponges
 Gamete formation can manage
 Body wall:
o Epidermis (outer)
🔷 NEMATOCYSTS
o Gastrodermis (lines cavity)
 Microscopic stinging capsules
o Separated by mesoglea:
 Each one secreted inside a nematocyte
 Ranges from thin glue (Hydra)
 Not cells, but capsules within cells
to thick, rubbery (jellyfish)
 Among the most complex structures
 Gastrovascular cavity also functions as a
hydrostatic skeleton: secreted by single animal cells
o Provides:  When triggered:
 Rigidity o Closure opens, tubule is emitted
 Shape o Tubule everts (turns inside out)
 Surface for muscle o Can:
contraction  Penetrate or wrap around
prey
  Be barbed o Share gastrovascular cavity
 Contain venom  Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia physalis):
⚠️ Some species: venom can kill humans o Floating colony of polyps and
 Thousands in each tentacle medusae (not a true jellyfish)
o Can be used once o Painful sting
o Also found in other parts (e.g., inside  Some are bioluminescent
gastrovascular cavity)  Hydra: a freshwater polyp
 Defense & offense o No medusa stage
 Responsible for jellyfish and fire coral stings o Moves by:
 Other stinging capsules (not nematocysts) =  Gliding on mucus
cnidae  Somersaulting
→ hence the name Cnidaria  Floating

🔷 CLASSES OF CNIDARIA 4. Scyphozoa (Jellyfish)

1. Anthozoa  ~350 species
 ~6,200 species  Medusa = dominant stage
 Sea anemones, corals, sea fans  Polyps:
 All polyps, solitary or colonial o Small, simple, inconspicuous
o May be absent in oceanic species
 Gastrovascular cavity:
o Compartmentalized by mesenteries  Movement:
o Gametes develop in mesenteries o Ring of muscle cells contracts
rhythmically
 Tentacles = hollow
o Jet propulsion
 Sea anemones:
o Can steer by contracting one side
o ~1,000 species
 Cyanea capillata was the “killer” jellyfish in
o Highly muscular, relatively complex
Sherlock Holmes’ The Adventure of the Lion’s
o Sizes: mm to >1 meter
Mane
 Hard corals (~1,400 species):
o Exoskeleton of calcium carbonate ⚠️ Most jellyfish are not lethal, but can cause pain
o Forms coral reefs
o Live with zooxanthellae (symbiotic 5. Staurozoa (Star Jellies)
dinoflagellates)  ~100 species
o Reefs form only in sunlit water (<100  Resemble medusae, but are attached by a
m deep) stalk
❗ Coral reefs = nurseries for fish, protect coastlines  Planula larva: crawling, not drifting
❗ Threatened by climate change, bleaching, and
ocean acidification THE CLADES OF PROTOSTOMES
 Some soft corals: Learning Outcomes
o Produce calcium carbonate sclerites 1. List the features that distinguish the two clades
o Can also produce horny rod skeleton of protostomes.
2. Explain how the coelom is formed in spiralians
2. Cubozoa (Box Jellies) and ecdysozoans.
 ~90 species 3. Explain the advantage of having a body cavity.
 Box-shaped medusae, tentacle(s) at each
🧬 General Features of Protostomes
corner
 Up to 25 cm  Protostomes = large, diverse clade of
bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic
 Strong swimmers, voracious fish predators
animals.
 Some have image-forming eyes
 Distinguished by:
 Stings can be fatal to humans
o Embryonic development:
 Polyp stage: inconspicuous or unknown
 Mouth develops from or near
the blastopore
3. Hydrozoa
o Nearly all possess well-defined heads
 ~6,000 species
and ventral nerve cords.
 Both polyp and medusa stages
 Colonial polyps:
🔹 Two Clades of Protostomes
o May be specialized (e.g., feeding vs
(Figure 34.1)
reproductive)
1. Spiralians
 oUndergo spiral cleavage during 🐚 Introduction: Mollusks and Human Relevance
development.  Mollusks—including oysters, clams, scallops,
o Grow by adding mass to an existing mussels, octopuses, and squids—are
body. important food sources.
o Includes:  Economically important for mother-of-pearl
 Platyzoans (nacre) from abalone shells (used for jewelry,
 Lophotrochozoans buttons, decorations).
2. Ecdysozoans  Mollusks can also be pests:
o Grow by molting their external o Ship-worms burrow through wood in
skeleton (ecdysis). marine environments.
o Includes: o Zebra mussel (Dreissena
 Nematodes polymorpha) invades freshwater
 Arthropods systems.
 Other lesser-known phyla o Slugs and snails damage crops and
gardens.
🔹 Spiralians o Some host larval parasites.
 Highly variable in body plans.
 Some groups are acoelomates (lack coelom). 🔹 Body Plan: Complex and Varied
 Others are coelomates, but coelom forms  Illustrated in Figure 34.10.
differently from traditional model:  Mantle: thick epidermal sheet covering the
o May not split from mesodermal dorsal side; secretes calcium carbonate shell.
masses as in early protostomes.  Mantle cavity: houses gills and receives waste
 Many have ciliated larvae: from organs.
o Known as trochophore larvae  Muscular foot: primary locomotion method
o Shared feature among many (except cephalopods); adapted for digging,
lophotrochozoans. gliding, or food capture.
 Head: may be well developed or reduced.
🔹 Ecdysozoans  Bilateral symmetry modified in gastropods by
 Ecdysis = process of molting torsion (a twisting of the body).
cuticle/exoskeleton.
 Cuticle: 🔹 Foot Adaptations and Movement
o Flexible in nematodes  Slugs/snails: mucus secretion for gliding.
o Hard exoskeleton in arthropods
 Cephalopods: foot forms tentacles or arms.
 Most do not undergo spiral cleavage.
 Clams: burrow using a hatchet-shaped foot.
 Lack trochophore larvae.
 Open-ocean mollusks: foot modified into
winglike projections to prevent sinking.
🔹 The Coelom Advantage
 Body cavity allows: 🔹 Internal Organs and Coelom
o Circulation of body fluids
 Coelom is highly reduced: limited to space
o Greater complexity of internal organs
around excretory organs, heart, intestine.
o Improved movement and flexibility
 Shell replaces the hydrostatic skeleton role of
 Especially important in animals lacking
the coelom.
circulatory systems:
 Digestive, excretory, and reproductive organs
o Pseudocoelom may serve as
in visceral mass.
hydrostatic skeleton
🦎 Even pseudocoelomates benefit from a body cavity
🔹 Respiration and Gills (Ctenidia)
 Gills project into mantle cavity.
 Made of blood-vessel-rich filaments,
increasing gas exchange surface area.
LOPHOTROCHOZOANS: MOLLUSKS (PHYLUM
 Water flow propelled by cilia (except
MOLLUSCA)
cephalopods).
Learning Outcomes
 Efficient: extract over 50% of dissolved oxygen.
 List the parts of the mollusk body plan.
 Bivalves: gills also serve in filter feeding.
 Distinguish between the classes of mollusks.
 Explain the origin of mollusk shells.
🔹 Shells
 Secreted by mantle’s outer surface.
  Functions:  Cephalopods: have closed circulatory
o Protection from predators and system with continuous vessels.
environment.
 Not essential: 🔹 Reproduction and Development
o Shells are reduced, internalized, or  Most mollusks are gonochoric (separate
lost in some mollusks (e.g., cuttlefish, sexes).
squids, octopuses, slugs).  Some bivalves and terrestrial/freshwater
 Structure: gastropods are hermaphroditic.
o Two layers of calcium carbonate:  Cross-fertilization common; some oysters can
 Outer: densely packed change sex.
crystals.  Fertilization:
 Inner: mother-of-pearl o Marine species: external (gametes
(nacre). released into water).
 Pearl formation: o Gastropods: internal (direct sperm
o A grain of sand lodged between shell transfer).
and mantle is coated with nacre to form  Adaptations for land colonization:
a pearl. o Internal fertilization
o Most prized pearls made by oysters. o Mucus-secreting foot
o Efficient excretory system
🔹 Feeding and the Radula  Development:
 Found in most mollusks (not in bivalves). o Spiral cleavage.
 Structure: o Zygote → trochophore larva (ciliated,
o Rasping, tonguelike membrane with swimming).
microscopic chitinous teeth. o In some: trochophore → veliger larva
o Wraps around a muscular support; (foot, shell, mantle begin to form).
works like a sanding belt. o Larvae drift and disperse species.
 Functions:
o Used to scrape algae, drill, or capture 🔷 DIVERSITY: FOUR CLASSES OF MOLLUSKS
prey. 1. Polyplacophora (Chitons)
 Special adaptations:  ~1000 species; exclusively marine.
o Moon snails: drill through clam shells.  Dorsal surface: 8 overlapping calcareous
o Conus snails: radula modified into a plates.
venomous harpoon.  Body not segmented but has:
o 8 pedal retractor muscles
🔹 Excretion: Nephridia o Repeated gills
 Excretory organ = nephridium (like a kidney).  Broad, flat ventral foot; creeps along rocks.
 Components:  Mantle cavity with gills.
o Nephrostome: cilia-lined open funnel.  Found from shallow to >7000 m depths.
o Coiled tubule → bladder →  Mostly grazing herbivores.
excretory pore.
 Functions: 2. Gastropoda (snails, slugs, limpets, nudibranchs)
o Removes nitrogenous waste from  ~60,000 species; largest mollusk class.
coelomic cavity.  Marine, freshwater, only terrestrial mollusks.
o Reabsorbs water, sugars, salts,  Most have a single coiled shell; some (slugs,
nutrients to maintain osmotic balance. nudibranchs) have no shell.
 Movement: creeping or swimming foot.
🔹 Circulatory System  Head: tentacles with eyes (sometimes two
 Main cavity: hemocoel (includes sinuses and sets; one with eyes at ends).
vessel networks in gills).  Torsion:
 Circulation: o Larval twisting moves mantle
o Heart → aorta → hemocoel → veins → cavity/anus to front.
heart. o Results in asymmetry and possible
o Most mollusks: open system using organ loss.
hemolymph. o Distinct from coiling (shell spiral).
o Heart: typically 3 chambers (2 atria, 1  Nudibranchs:
ventricle).
 o Lack mantle cavity; gills exposed  Adult size ranges: 80 µm (mites) → 3 m
dorsally. (Japanese spider crabs)
o Feed on sponges and cnidarians.
o Can extract nematocysts for own 🧬 Economic Importance
defense. Arthropods are of enormous economic importance,
o Some secrete distasteful chemicals. affecting all aspects of human life.
 Pollinate crops
3. Bivalvia (clams, oysters, mussels, scallops)  Valuable as food
 Shell: two valves hinged dorsally.  Compete with humans for food
 Lack radula and distinct head.  Damage crops
 Use wedge-shaped foot for burrowing.  Insects = most important herbivores in
 Movement: scallops clap shells to swim. terrestrial ecosystems
 Gills serve for respiration and filter feeding.
 Mantle cavity contains siphons: 🧬 Phylogeny & Classification
o Inhalant siphon: brings in water. Taxonomists currently recognize four extant classes
o Exhalant siphon: expels waste. (a fifth, the trilobites, is extinct):
 Gametes released into water for external 1. Chelicerates – chelicerae (pincers)
fertilization. 2. Crustaceans – mandibles
3. Hexapods – mandibles
4. Cephalopoda (squid, octopuses, cuttlefish, 4. Myriapods – mandibles
nautiluses)  Mandibles are inferred to have arisen from a
 Marine, active predators. pair of limbs
 Movement by jet propulsion.
 Foot modified into: 🧬 Key Features and Organ Systems
o Arms (octopus: 8)
o Arms + 2 tentacles (squid) 🔗 Segmentation
o Up to 90 tentacles (no suckers) Arthropods have a modular segmented body,
(nautilus) exoskeleton, and jointed appendages
 Have beak-like jaws, radula, and venom (e.g.,  Some: segments look alike
blue-ringed octopus).  Others: segments fused into tagmata (e.g.,
 Nervous system: head, thorax, abdomen in insects)
o Large brain, complex eyes, known for  Tagmatization = fusion of segments
problem-solving.
 Shell: 🧬 Exoskeleton
o External (nautilus), internal The rigid external skeleton, or exoskeleton, is made of
(squid/cuttlefish), absent (octopus). chitin and protein
 Defense: ink sacs, camouflage via  Provides protection, support, and
chromatophores. antagonism for muscles
 Some are bioluminescent.  Helps prevent water loss (especially in insects)
 Direct development: no larval stage. ❗ Limitations:
 Must molt (ecdysis) to grow
 Controlled by ecdysteroid hormones
ECDYSOZOANS: ARTHROPODS (ARTHROPODA)  Vulnerable during molting
 Molted parts: exoskeleton, digestive tract
linings, compound eyes
🔑 Overview
Arthropods are by far the most successful of all 🔧 Jointed Appendages
animals (table 34.1); 1,200,000 species—about two- All arthropods have jointed appendages
thirds of all the named species on Earth—are  Modified into antennae, mouthparts, legs
members of the phylum Arthropoda (figure 34.31).  Allows for flexibility, leverage, and efficient
 Insects alone may include as many as 30 locomotion
million species
 ~200 million individual insects are alive at any 🧬 Circulatory System
time for each human Open circulatory system
 Few marine insects  Main component: heart (longitudinal muscular
vessel near dorsal side)
  Hemolymph pumped anteriorly  Found: East coast of North America, Southeast
 Flows through tissue spaces, returns via one- Asia
way valves  Marine chelicerates

🧬 Nervous System 🕸️ Spiders (Order: Araneae)

Central feature: double chain of segmented ganglia  ~35,000 species
along the ventral surface  Roles: Predators (e.g., insects)
 Anterior: 3 fused dorsal ganglia = brain  Tools: Silk, spinnerets, poison glands
 Ventral ganglia control most activities  Dangerous species:
independently of brain o Latrodectus hesperus (black widow)
 Brain = control point, not stimulator o Loxosceles reclusa (brown recluse)

👀 Visual Organs 🕷️ Order: Acari (Mites & Ticks)

Many insects, crustaceans, centipedes, and trilobites  ~50,000 named, possibly over 1 million exist
have compound eyes  Respiration: tracheae or body surface
 Units: ommatidia (each with lens, 8 retinular  Life stages: prelarva → larva → nymphs →
cells, central rhabdom) adult
 Also have ocelli (simple eyes, detect light vs. Ticks: Blood-feeding parasites
dark)  Can carry diseases:
o Rocky Mountain spotted fever
🌬️ Respiratory System o Lyme disease
Varies based on environment: o Red-water fever (Texas fever)
 Marine: Gills or book gills (e.g., horseshoe
crabs) 🧬 Class: Crustacea
 Terrestrial:  ~65,000 species
o Tracheae → tracheoles → cells  Most marine, some freshwater/terrestrial
o Open to exterior via spiracles  Ex: crabs, lobsters, shrimp, barnacles
o Can open/close to prevent water loss 🔁 Body Plan:
 Book lungs: In some spiders (air chamber with  Tagmata: cephalon + thorax = cephalothorax
plates)
 2 pairs of antennae, biramous appendages
 Appendages on thorax and abdomen
💩 Excretory System 🧬 Respiration:
 Aquatic: Waste may diffuse through gills  Gills at leg bases
 Terrestrial: Malpighian tubules  Smaller species: gas exchange through cuticle
o Found in: insects, myriapods,
chelicerates 🧬 Crustacean Reproduction
o Precipitate uric acid or guanine  Many have copulation, carry eggs
o Water/salts reabsorbed to conserve
 Nauplius larva (3 pairs of appendages) →
moisture
metamorphosis

🕷️ Class: Chelicerata 🧬 Order: Decapoda

 ~70,000 species  Shrimp, lobsters, crabs, crayfish
 Body divided into:  "Ten-footed" = 5 pairs of thoracic legs
o Prosoma (with appendages)  Exoskeleton with calcium carbonate
o Opisthosoma (reproductive organs)  Features:
✅ Features: o Carapace, swimmerets, uropods,
 Chelicerae: fangs or pincers telson
 Pedipalps (sensory/copulatory/pincers)
 Four pairs of walking legs 🌊 Order: Cirripedia (Barnacles)
🔬 Feeding:  Sessile crustaceans
 Most: carnivorous  Attach by head, grow calcareous plates
 Mites: herbivorous  Use feathery legs to filter feed
 Mostly liquid feeders (via digestive enzymes +  Hermaphroditic, extremely long penis (relative
muscular pharynx) to body size)

🧬 Horseshoe Crabs (e.g., Limulus polyphemus) 🐜 Class: Hexapoda (Insects)

  Insects (Class Hexapoda) are: o Can be several times longer than the
o By far the largest group of animals on body
Earth  Digestion occurs mainly in the stomach
o Live in every terrestrial and (midgut)
freshwater habitat  Salivary glands contribute enzymes near the
o Very few are marine mouth
🌎 Diversity & Abundance
 More than half of all named animal species 🔷 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
are insects 🔹 Tracheal System
 ~90,000 described species in the US &  Consists of tracheae and air sacs
Canada  Spiracles: external openings on thorax and
 Actual estimated number: ~125,000 abdomen
 A hectare of tropical forest may contain up to o Can be opened/closed by muscles
41,000 species 🔹 Specialized Cases
 Many suburban gardens host 1,500+ species  In parasitic and aquatic groups:
 Estimated quintillion (1️0¹⁸) insects alive at any o Spiracles are permanently closed
one time o Gas exchange occurs via diffusion
near the body surface
🔷 EXTERNAL FEATURES 🔹 Air Flow
🔹 Size  Air sacs + surrounding muscles = bellows
 Range: 0.1 mm to 30 cm in length or wingspan system
🔹 Mouthparts o Forces air deep into body
 All insects have the same basic mouthpart
structure, but are modified for: 🔷 SENSORY STRUCTURES
o Piercing (e.g., mosquitoes) 🔹 Sensory Setae
o Sucking nectar (e.g., butterflies)  Hairlike structures spread over the body
o Sopping up liquids (e.g., houseflies)  Detect mechanical and chemical stimuli
🔹 Eyes  Especially dense on:
 Most have compound eyes o Antennae
 Many also possess ocelli (simple eyes) o Legs
🔹 Body Regions (Tagmata) Sound detected by a thin membrane tympanum.
1. Head Sound waves, sensory hairs.
2. Thorax pheromones, mating signals, trail markers
o Divided into 3 segments
o Each segment bears a pair of legs = Class: Myriapoda
6 total legs  Includes: Centipedes and millipedes
o May have 1 or 2 pairs of wings  Characterized by numerous body segments,
 Not homologous to other each with paired appendages
appendages 🔷 BODY PLAN
 Attach to middle and  Head:
posterior thoracic segments o Has one pair of antennae
 Composed of chitin and o Mouthparts include mandibles
protein
 Body:
 Moth/butterfly wings:
o Consists of many similar segments
covered in detachable scales
o Each segment typically has one pair
 Veins provide structural
(centipedes) or two pairs
strength
(millipedes) of uniramous
3. Abdomen
appendages
 Uniramous: single-branched
🔷 INTERNAL ORGANIZATION limbs (not biramous like
🔹 Digestive System crustaceans)
 Generally a straight tube
 In fluid-feeding insects (e.g., leafhoppers, 🔷 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CENTIPEDES AND
cicadas): MILLIPEDES
o Gut is greatly coiled (Implied through classification features in the text)
Feature Centipedes Millipedes
 Legs per One pair per Two pairs per  Examples: sea stars, brittle stars, sea
segment body segment body segment urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers.
Lifestyle Typically Typically
carnivorous herbivorous or 🔶 Echinoderms Exhibit a Modified Radial Symmetry
detritivorous  Pentaradial symmetry: body arranged around
Speed and Fast-moving Slower, more five axes.
movement deliberate  Bilateral symmetry in larval stage → changes
movement to radial as adults.
Defense Can bite with May secrete  Orientation is based on the mouth’s location:
mechanisms poison claws chemicals for o Some, like sea cucumbers, crawl
(forcipules) defense mouth-first.
🔷 TAGMATA o In crinoids, the oral surface is
 No clear division into tagmata like in insects oriented upward.
 Instead: a head region + homogeneous trunk  No true anterior or posterior ends in adults.
segments  Organ systems are arranged in branches
 All trunk segments look very similar, especially radiating from the center.
in millipedes
🧬 The Endoskeleton Is Composed of Calcium
🔷 APPENDAGES Carbonate Plates
 Uniramous: Unlike crustaceans (which are  Made of ossicles: internal calcium carbonate
biramous), myriapod appendages are plates under a thin epidermis.
unbranched  Structural differences by class:
 Appendages used for: o Loosely joined in sea stars
o Walking (Asteroidea).
o Grasping prey (in centipedes) o Fused into rigid shells in sea urchins
and sand dollars (Echinoidea).
🔷 RESPIRATION AND EXCRETION o Scattered and embedded in the body
While not elaborated in a full separate myriapod section, wall in sea cucumbers
details from the arthropod general systems apply: (Holothuroidea) → gives flexibility.
 Tracheal system:  In many, tube feet (from the water-vascular
o Air enters through spiracles system) project through ossicle pores.
o Delivered via tracheae → tracheoles
to tissues ⚙️ Echinoderms Have Mutable Collagenous Tissue
 Excretion:  Special connective tissue that can rapidly
o Use Malpighian tubules (as in insects switch from stiff to flexible.
and chelicerates)  Allows:
o Remove nitrogenous waste and o Autotomy (casting off arms/body parts
conserve wate to escape predators).
o Shape-changing in sea cucumbers
(can become soft and flaccid).
DEUSTEROSTOMES
o Controlled by nerve signals (not
hormones).
ECHINODERMS
- Internal skeleton 💧 The Water-Vascular System Has Many Functions
- Spiny skin  Derived from coelom (coelomic compartment
- Pentaradially symmetrical, 5 axes, draw lines modification).
on body  System of fluid-filled canals:
🌀 Echinoderms Are Ancient and Unmistakable o Begins at madreporite (a sievelike
 Phylum Echinodermata includes about plate).
12,000 living species, exclusively marine. o Connects to stone canal, then to ring
canal around the esophagus.
 Evolved nearly 600 million years ago.
o Radial canals extend into arms or
 Body is covered with living tissue over an
body.
endoskeleton of calcium-rich ossicles.
 Connected to tube feet (with ampullae and
 Unique hydraulic system called the water-
suckers):
vascular system—used for movement,
o Used for locomotion, feeding, gas
feeding, and gas exchange.
exchange, and excretion.
  Water movement is essential for hydraulic REPTILES
function of tube feet. 🐊 Reptiles Improved on Amphibians’ Designs for
Land
♻️ Echinoderms Reproduce Sexually and  If amphibians are the first draft of vertebrate
Regenerate Lost Parts terrestrial life, reptiles are the refined
 Most are gonochoric (separate sexes). manuscript.
 External fertilization; eggs and sperm  Reptiles enhanced survival on land through:
released into water. o Stronger leg support and posture.
 Fertilized egg develops into a bilaterally o More efficient lungs and heart.
symmetrical free-swimming larva. o Dry, scaly skin to minimize water loss.
 Many species have impressive regenerative o Watertight, self-contained eggs
abilities: (amniotic).
o Can regrow arms, and some can  Over 10,000 species exist today.
regenerate entire individuals from one  More snakes and lizards than mammals.
arm with part of the central disk.
🧬 Key Characteristics of Living Reptiles
🐚 The Five Living Classes of Echinoderms 1. Amniotic Eggs
 Watertight and self-sufficient; laid on land.
1. Asteroidea (Sea Stars)  Contain food (yolk) and four membranes:
 Have thick arms radiating from a central disk. o Chorion – gas exchange, retains
 Tube feet with suckers aid in locomotion and water.
prey capture. o Amnion – encases embryo in fluid.
 Feed on bivalves by everting their stomachs o Yolk sac – delivers food via vessels.
through the mouth into prey. o Allantois – stores embryonic waste.
 Also found in birds and mammals → grouped
2. Ophiuroidea (Brittle Stars) as amniotes.
 Slender arms that are distinct from the central
disk. 2. Dry, Watertight Skin
 Lack suckers on tube feet; arms used for  Covered in keratinized scales (same protein
movement, not feet. as claws, nails, feathers).
 More active than sea stars.  Prevents water loss.
 Unlike amphibians, reptiles do not require
3. Echinoidea (Sea Urchins, Sand Dollars) moist environments.
 Have no arms.
 Covered with movable spines and 3. Thoracic (Pulmonary) Breathing
pedicellariae.  Expand and contract rib cage to ventilate
 Use Aristotle’s lantern (jawlike feeding lungs.
structure) to graze algae.  Provides greater lung capacity than
amphibians’ throat-pumping.
4. Crinoidea (Sea Lilies, Feather Stars)
 Oral surface faces up. 🧬 Synapsids vs. Diapsids
 Arms are branched and feathery, used in  Classification involves skull fenestration
filter feeding. (holes behind eye socket):
 Some are stalked (sea lilies), others are o Anapsids – no hole (e.g., turtles).
mobile (feather stars). o Synapsids – 1 hole (early reptiles →
mammals).
5. Holothuroidea (Sea Cucumbers) o Diapsids – 2 holes (most modern
reptiles, birds).
 Elongated, soft-bodied with reduced ossicles.
🧬 Synapsids
 Use modified tube feet (tentacles) around
 First dominant group with one temporal
mouth for feeding.
opening.
 Can eviscerate (expel internal organs) as a
 Pelycosaurs (e.g., Dimetrodon) had large
defensive mechanism.
sails.
 Replaced by therapsids, which showed:
o Possible endothermy and fur.
o Gave rise to mammals.
❤️ Circulation and Metabolism MAMMALS (CLASS MAMMALIA)
 Reptiles have a partially divided ventricle: Based entirely on the PDF “animal syste f_removed.pdf”
o Less mixing of
oxygenated/deoxygenated blood. 🎯 LEARNING OUTCOMES
o Crocodiles have a four-chambered 1. Describe the characteristics of mammals.
heart (like birds/mammals). 2. Compare the three groups of living
☀️ Ectothermy mammals.
 Rely on external heat sources.
 Many can regulate body temp by basking or 🧬 ORIGIN & EVOLUTION
hiding.  Mammals diverged from reptiles ~220 million
 Some desert lizards can maintain stable body years ago (mya)
temperatures all day. o Evolved from therapsid reptiles
(synapsid lineage)
🧬 Modern Orders of Reptiles o Early mammals: small, nocturnal
(More than 10,000 species across 4 extant orders) insectivores
🐢 1. Order Chelonia (Turtles and Tortoises)  Earliest traits:
o Single lower jawbone
 About 340 species.
o Three middle ear bones (from reptilian
 Shell of bony plates fused to ribs and
jaw bones)
vertebrae.
 Post-dinosaur extinction (65 mya):
 No teeth, but a sharp, horny beak.
o Mammals rapidly diversified
 Turtles (mostly aquatic), tortoises (terrestrial).
o Took over ecological roles left by
dinosaurs
🧬 2. Order Rhynchocephalia (Tuataras)
o “Age of Mammals” = Tertiary period
 Only 1 species survives: Sphenodon (New
(65–2 mya)
Zealand).
 Fused socketless teeth, primitive third eye
🐻 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF MAMMALS
under skin.
1. Hair
 Active at low temperatures, burrow by day,
 Found in all mammals (even hairless ones like
feed at night.
whales grow sensory bristles)
 Closest relatives to snakes and lizards.
 Functions:
o Insulation (thermoregulation in cold
🐍 3. Order Squamata (Lizards and Snakes)
climates)
 6200 lizard species, 3500 snake species. o Camouflage
 Males have two copulatory organs. o Sensory input (e.g., whiskers)
 Highly flexible jaw design aids in feeding. o Defense (e.g., porcupine quills)
 Lizards: usually <0.3 m; some (e.g., Komodo  Hair = keratin-based filament, grows from
dragon) >3 m. hair follicle
 Snakes: limbless, no external ears, sometimes 2. Mammary Glands
>10 m.  Produce milk for offspring
 Many show tail autotomy and regeneration.  Rich in fat (about 50% of milk energy)
 Only a few venomous species (e.g., Gila  Essential for rapid growth of toothless
monster, vipers, cobras). newborns
3. Endothermy
🐊 4. Order Crocodylia (Crocodiles and Alligators)  Mammals are endothermic (warm-blooded)
 25 species including crocodiles, alligators,  Enables activity in all environments, day or
caimans, and gharials. night
 Aquatic carnivores, ambush predators.  Supported by:
 Nostrils and eyes positioned for stealth. o 4-chambered heart
 Four-chambered heart, build nests, parental o Efficient lungs
care. o Diaphragm (muscle aiding breathing)
 More closely related to birds and dinosaurs 4. Placenta
than to other reptiles.  Found in most mammals
 Nourishes developing fetus in uterus
 Formed from chorion and allantois
membranes
  Allows nutrient and gas exchange (no mixing  Only living mammals that lay shelled eggs
of maternal/fetal blood)  Egg has no placenta
 Have a cloaca (single opening for feces, urine,
🧬 SPECIALIZED TEETH and reproductive products) — like reptiles
 Mammals have heterodont dentition: 🔹 Mammalian Features Retained
o Incisors – chiseling  Single bone on each side of lower jaw
o Canines – ripping/tearing  Fur
o Premolars/Molars – grinding/shearing  Mammary glands
Diet identification by teeth: o No nipples: milk oozes onto fur;
 Carnivores (dogs): long canines, sharp molars babies lap it off
 Herbivores (deer): flat incisors, ridged molars 🔹 Reptilian Features Retained
 Omnivores (humans): all three types present
 Shoulder and pelvis similar to early reptiles
 Specialized:
 Cloaca shared with reptiles
o Beavers – chisel-like incisors
🔹 Ecological Adaptations
o Elephants – tusks = enlarged incisors
 Platypus:
o Lives in water
🌱 DIGESTION IN HERBIVORES
o Has electroreceptors in its bill (detect
Herbivory is common, but cellulose is indigestible
muscle discharges in prey)
without bacteria.
o Roots in mud for worms and soft-
Two strategies:
bodied animals
1. Ruminants (cows, deer, giraffes, etc.):
 Echidnas:
o 4-chambered stomach
o Strong claws for burrowing and
o First chamber = fermentation vat
digging
(bacteria digest cellulose)
o Feeds on insects (e.g., ants, termites)
o Further digestion in other chambers
using snout
2. Hindgut Fermenters (rodents, horses, rabbits,
elephants):
👶 2. MARSUPIALS – Pouched mammals
o Small stomach
o Digestion in large intestine + cecum Examples: Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus), Virginia
Elephants eat up to 135–150 kg of plant material/day opossum (Didelphis virginiana)
🔹 Reproductive Traits
🐾 HOOFS & HORNS  Fertilized egg:
 Hooves: hard keratin pads on toes (e.g., o Surrounded by chorion and amniotic
horses, cows) membranes
o Absorb impact o No shell forms (unlike monotremes)
 Horns: bone core + keratin sheath  Early development nourished by yolk
(permanent)  Before birth:
 Antlers (deer): o A short-lived placenta forms from the
o Made of bone, not keratin chorion
o Shed annually  Born early:
o Covered in velvet skin during growth o Sometimes within eight days of
fertilization
🧬 FLIGHT IN MAMMALS: BATS o Tiny and hairless newborn crawls into
 Only mammals capable of powered flight marsupium (pouch)
 Wings = modified forelimbs o Latches onto nipple and continues
o Membrane stretches over 4 elongated development
fingers 🔹 Evolution and Geography
o Attaches to side of body and hind legs  Evolved ~125 million years ago, before
 Rest by hanging upside down by toe claws placental mammals
 Second-largest mammal order (after rodents)  Most live in Australia and South America
 Feed on night-flying insects o Australia/New Guinea marsupials
 Navigate via echolocation (sonar) diversified to fill placental ecological
roles
🧬 1. MONOTREMES – Egg-laying mammals
 Only North American marsupial: Virginia
Examples: Duck-billed platypus, short-nosed echidna
opossum
(Tachyglossus aculeatus), long-nosed echidna
(Zaglossus bruijni)
🧬 3. PLACENTAL MAMMALS – Eutherians
🔹 Reproductive Traits
Examples: Humans, lions (Panthera leo), dolphins
(Tursiops truncatus)
🔹 Reproductive Traits
 Placenta forms early in development:
o Derived from chorion and allantois
o Highly vascularized with maternal +
fetal vessels
o Enables efficient nutrient, gas, and
waste exchange
o Maternal and fetal blood do not mix
 Young develop longer in uterus than
marsupials
 Most species of modern mammals are in this
group
🔹 Diversity
 Includes all but two orders of living mammals
 Range from 1.5-g pygmy shrews to 100,000-
kg whales
🌿 CHAPTER 30: SEEDLESS PLANTS  Asexual via lens-shaped
tissue
Key Concepts (Verbatim)  Mosses:
 Green algae and the land plants shared a o Have rhizoids and water-conducting
common ancestor a little over 1 bya and are cells
collectively referred to as the green plants. o Sensitive to air pollution
 The green plants are photoautotrophic, but o Can absorb 25x weight in water (e.g.,
not all photoautotrophs are plants. peat moss)
 The plant kingdom includes green algae but  Hornworts:
does not include fungi, which are more o Sister group to tracheophytes
closely related to metazoan animals. o Photosynthetic sporophytes
 Fungi enhanced plant nutrient uptake and o Have stomata, chloroplasts, and
were essential to colonization of land. cyanobacteria symbiosis
 Adaptations for terrestrial living included o Spores released along entire "horn"
mechanisms to:
o Avoid water loss 🌿 30.3 Tracheophyte Plants: Dominant Sporophyte
o Protect from UV radiation Generation
 All land plants alternate between haploid Learning Outcomes
gametophyte and diploid sporophyte  Explain evolutionary significance of tracheids.
generations.  Evaluate significance of roots, stems, leaves
o There is a trend toward sporophyte in tracheophytes.
dominance in more advanced groups. Key Concepts (Verbatim)
 First appeared ~410 mya
🌱 30.2 Bryophytes: Dominant Gametophyte  Example: Cooksonia (phylum Rhyniophyta)
Generation o First known vascular land plant
Learning Outcome o Homosporous
 Describe adaptations of bryophytes for o No roots or leaves
terrestrial environments. Traits of Tracheophytes
Classification  Dominant sporophyte
 Nontracheophytes: Lack tracheids (transport  Developed vascular tissue:
cells) o Xylem (water, minerals)
 Comprised of: o Phloem (sucrose, hormones)
o Liverworts (phylum Hepaticophyta) o Initially only tracheids in xylem
o Mosses (phylum Bryophyta)
o Hornworts (phylum Anthocerotophyta) 🍃 30.4 Lycophytes: Divergent from Main Lineage of
Adaptations and Features (Verbatim) Vascular Plants
 Water and gas availability were limiting factors. Learning Outcomes
 Traits:  Differentiate lycophytes from bryophytes.
o Tolerated desiccation  Distinguish lycophytes from other vascular
o Symbiotic mycorrhizal associations plants.
 Gametophyte: Key Concepts
o Specialized for light capture and  Sister group to all other vascular plants
photosynthesis  Have small leaves with unbranched veins
o Conducting cells transport nutrients (lycophylls)
 Sporophyte:  Early ancestors had treelike growth
o Grows upright from gametophyte  Modern club mosses:
o Releases spores via air currents o Worldwide, especially in tropics
Key Phyla o Homosporous or heterosporous
 Liverworts: o Need external water for fertilization
o Oldest bryophyte phylum
o Two forms: 🌿 30.5 Pterophytes: Ferns and Their Relatives
 Flattened, lobed (like liver) Groups Included
 Leafy  Ferns
o Have unicellular rhizoids  Horsetails
o Fixed-open pores for gas exchange  Whisk ferns
o Reproduction:
 Sexual via gametangia
🌿 Ferns 🌱 CHAPTER 31: SEED PLANTS
 Primarily homosporous Verbatim reviewer structured from PDF content
 Fronds (leaves) uncoil as they mature (Sections: 31.1–31.5)
 Sporangia form sori on underside
 Sporophytes and gametophytes are 📘 31.1 The Evolution of Seed Plants
photosynthetic 🔹 Key Concepts (Verbatim)
 Gametophytes can live independently  Numerous evolutionary solutions to terrestrial
 Require water for fertilization challenges have resulted in over 400,000
species of seed plants dominating all terrestrial
🌾 Horsetails communities today.
 Homosporous  Collectively, these seed plants affect almost
 Jointed, ribbed stems every aspect of our lives:
 Leaves: o Improving environmental quality
o Scalelike, arranged in whorls o Providing pharmaceuticals, food,
o Nonphotosynthetic at maturity fuels, building materials, and
 Contain silica in stem epidermis clothing
 Seed plants evolved from spore-bearing
🌱 Whisk Ferns plants known as progymnosperms.
o Shared features with gymnosperms:
 Homosporous
secondary vascular tissues
 Lack roots and leaves
o Reproduction was very simple
 Forking green stems
 Two whole-genome duplication events:
 Two genera:
o ~319 mya: Early seed plants diverged
o Psilotum (has flaps, no stomata)
from seedless ancestor
o Tmesipteris (leaflike appendages)
o ~192 mya: Early angiosperms
 Gametophytes:
appeared
o Colorless, very small
 Seed = innovation:
o Symbiotic with fungi
o Protects embryo with integument
o May develop vascular elements
o Creates ovule
o Introduces dormant phase for
🌱 Comparison Table: Seedless Vascular Plants
surviving harsh conditions
(Table 30.1) o Eliminates need for external water in
Phylum Examp Key Characteristics Livin fertilization
les g  Seed plants produce:
Speci o Male gametophyte = pollen grain
es o Female gametophyte = inside ovule
Lycoph Club Homosporous/hetero 1,275
yta mosses sporous, sperm
🌲 31.2 Gymnosperms: Plants with “Naked Seeds”
motile, external water
🔹 Learning Outcomes
needed
1. Describe the distinguishing features of a
Pteroph Ferns Mostly homosporous, 11,00
gymnosperm.
yta sperm motile, fronds 0
2. List the four groups of living gymnosperms.
uncoil, both
generations 🔹 Key Features (Verbatim)
photosynthetic  Seeds distinguish gymnosperms from ferns
Horset Homosporous, jointed 15 and allies.
ails stems, scalelike  Gymnosperms = 4 of 5 seed plant lineages:
leaves, silica in 1. Coniferophytes
epidermis 2. Cycadophytes
Whisk Homosporous, no 6 3. Gnetophytes
ferns root/shoot 4. Ginkgophytes
differentiation, no true  Name meaning: “Naked seed” → seed
leaves, flagellated develops exposed on a scale (not enclosed in
sperm sporophyte tissues)
 Reproduction Variability:
o Cycads and Ginkgo: Motile sperm
 o Conifers and Gnetophytes: Nonmotile
sperm, travel in pollen tube 🌱 Double Fertilization (Unique to Angiosperms)
 Mostly terrestrial, some aquatic species  One sperm + egg → zygote
 Other sperm + polar nuclei → triploid
🌲 Coniferophyta (Conifers) endosperm
 Largest gymnosperm group  Provides nutrients for embryo
 Examples: Pines, spruces, cedars,  Female gametophyte = embryo sac, 7 cells,
redwoods, yews 8 nuclei
 Coastal redwood: Tallest living vascular plant  Faster pollen tube growth than gymnosperms
(~100 m)
 Bristlecone pine: Oldest tree (~4900 years) 🌾 31.4 Seeds
 Economically vital: timber, resin, paclitaxel 🔹 Learning Outcomes
(Taxol) 1. Describe four ways seeds help ensure
 Genome: ~10x larger than human genome survival.
2. List environmental triggers for seed
🌴 Cycadophyta (Cycads) germination.
 Resemble palms but produce cones 🔹 Key Points (Verbatim)
 Sperm: flagellated and motile  Following fertilization:
 Growth: slow secondary growth o Embryo development arrests
o Integuments harden → seed coat
🌵 Gnetophyta (Gnetophytes)  Four functions of seeds:
 Only gymnosperms with xylem vessels 1. Dormancy under unfavorable conditions
 Genera: Ephedra, Gnetum, Welwitschia 2. Maximum protection for young plant
 Ephedra: Shrubby, jointed stems 3. Stored food for early development
 Gnetum: Broad leaves, used as vegetable 4. Dispersal adaptation
 Welwitschia: Namib desert, two giant leaves  Germination requires water and oxygen
 Some seeds viable for hundreds to
🌳 Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo) thousands of years
 Only one extant species: Ginkgo biloba
 Fan-shaped leaves 🍎 31.5 Fruits
 Deciduous 🔹 Learning Outcomes
 Dioecious  Describe types and structures of fruits
 Female seeds: foul-smelling coating  Explain how fruits aid in seed dispersal
🔹 Key Concepts (Verbatim)
🌸 31.3 Angiosperms: The Flowering Plants  Fruit = mature ovary
🔹 Key Features (Verbatim)  Develops with embryo, endosperm, seed
 Ovules enclosed within diploid tissue at coat
fertilization  Types:
 Carpel: Modified leaf forming ovary → fruit o Dry (e.g., legumes, samaras)
 Earliest known species: Amborella o Fleshy (e.g., berries, drupes)
trichopoda o Simple, aggregate, multiple
 Horizontal gene transfer detected in  Genetic content from:
Amborella from mosses o Parent sporophyte
o Gametophyte remnants
o Offspring sporophyte
🌼 Flower Morphology
 Dispersal:
 Modified stems and leaves
o Ingestion, burial, wind, water
 Four whorls:
o Fruits enable ecosystem expansion
1. Sepals
2. Petals
3. Androecium (stamens → pollen)
4. Gynoecium (carpels → ovule)
 Carpel parts:
o Ovary (becomes fruit)
o Style
o Stigma
ito ba????????????
Pressing & Drying
LAB TECHNIQUES FOR SPECIMEN  Clean plant materials.
PRESERVATION  Arrange plants on newspaper, cover, and
Herbarium Preparation press. Bundle with other materials to keep it
 A herbarium is a storehouse of plant dry.
specimens. In it, dried, pressed, preserved &  Spray specimens with 95% ethyl alcohol.
mounted plant specimens are arranged in a  Inspect the material 24 hours later, replacing
sequence of an accepted system of the top layer of blotting paper with dry card.
classification for future reference & study. Inspect regularly - at least once a week.
 In the world, there are about 1,500 recognized Depending on the plants being pressed and the
herbaria, besides many smaller herbaria with drying conditions, a dry specimen will be ready
institutions, universities, pharmacies, etc. in anything from two to three days to two to
Functions of a Herbarium three weeks.
 Conservatory of material & data. Plant Presser – 12x18 inches
 Allows accurate identification of plants.
 Certifies that a plant name is correct by Fixation and Preservation of Invertebrates
providing a vital reference collection of Invertebrate Killing Methods
authenticated material. This is often based on Killing Jars
the original material used to frame the plant’s  Absorbent material: Plaster of Paris / Cotton
description and is called ‘Type material’.  Liquid killing agents: Ether, ethanol,
 Acts as a source of information about plants formalin, and chloroform.
(e.g., on plant distribution, ecology, or plant  Ethyl acetate is the most widely used of these
medicinal usage). chemicals.
 Allows validation of scientific observations  These chemicals are extremely volatile and
(e.g., on climate change, genetics, and flammable and should never be used near
conservation matters). fire.
 Supports research and teaching activities.  The killing agents are the bounds of sodium
Materials for Collection cyanide, potassium cyanide, or ethyl
 Collecting pick – Used for digging up roots & acetate.
rhizomes of herbaceous plants so that the  These are all very poisonous and should be
collected specimen is complete. mixed with non-absorbent wad to be handled
 Strong knife – Required for cutting branches with extreme care.
& other plant parts.
 Pruning shears – For cutting woody & hard Freezing
material.  Due to environmental and safety concerns
 Vasculum – Used for accommodating and the well-being of the specimen, these
collected specimens. methods have been done away with and are
 Blotting papers today being replaced by freezing.
 Collecting bags  After the specimens have been collected, they
 Hand lens can be transported home or to the lab in a
 Field book (Field diary) – Used for noting plastic zip-lock bag or paper envelopes.
down details of collected plants.  The specimens are then carefully placed into
Field Notes a portion of the freezer where they will not be
The main objective of field notes is to record data of damaged. Leaving invertebrates in the freezer
taxonomic value that will not be apparent from the for prolonged periods of time may damage
specimen. the specimen.
 Date  They are to be frozen only long enough to
 Number of plant render them immobile.
 Name of plant Preservation of Invertebrates – Dry Method
 Province Sponges
 Locality  Wear hand gloves.
 Altitude  Put under clear, running water, rinse and
 Habitat squeeze to drain out excess water.
 Description  For removing the smell, the sponge is then
placed in a container of alcohol with a lid for
48 hours.
  Before drying large specimens, labels are  Pinning Blocks: It is important that all the
attached by means of string, threaded specimens and labels are placed at a uniform
through the body of the sponge. height on the pins.
 Dry in the sun.  Setting/Spreading:
 When thoroughly dried, sponges are kept in o Moths, butterflies, lacewings, and
small cardboard boxes supported with tissue dragonflies are set with both pairs of
paper. wings spread, whereas
 Paradichlorobenzene or naphthalene flakes o Grasshoppers, cockroaches, mantids,
may be added to dry containers. stick insects, and occasionally bees are
Dry Shells of Mollusca set with only one pair of wings extended.
 After removing the dead tissue, the shells are
sorted into sturdy and fragile shells. Preservation of Invertebrates
 Sturdy shells are kept in a container having Insect Preservation
four parts of ethyl alcohol and one part of Mounting Large Insects
lacquer. The lacquer is used as a binder to  Insects longer than around 8 mm are
fasten the preserved, evaporated, and mounted by direct pinning.
dehydrated ethyl alcohol to the shell surface.  The body part through which the pin is placed
This is done to remove any dirt, barnacle, differs in some orders.
barnacles, and to attach a new fresh look. Mounting small insects
 Fragile and ultrafine seashells are washed in  Card points: Small bugs, wasps, and flies
mild dish detergent solution. After the  Card Platforms: Small insects, particularly
seashell is dried, it is sprinkled from time to certain beetles and parasitic wasps
time with oil and then polished with a soft  Minuten pins: This method is also called
rag. double mounting or staging.
 Some collectors like to use baby oil on a well-  Gelatine capsules
dried shell to bring out its luster.  Glueing to pins
Echinoderms (Asteroids and Ophiuroids)
 Clean in a mild detergent solution that is Wet Method
mostly water and very little detergent and S Fixation Preservati Notes
then dry in the sun. (e.g. 70- on
 Soak the starfish immediately in rubbing 80%
alcohol for 48 hours as a long alternative. It alcohol)
is then allowed to dry in a changing. Mollusca Menthol Formalin Not
 Soak it in formalin, which is 1 part crystals or 5% recommend
formaldehyde and 5 parts water, and then in water neutral ed:
dry it properly. buffered Mentholate
 While drying, it is necessary to put weight on formalin d spirits, dry
the very end of the starfish, or else they will sand, and
curl up. pinning.
Insect Preservation Muscles to
Relaxing Methods be post-
 Flat plastic container with an airtight lid makes fixed in
an ideal relaxing dish. saturated
 Base lined with moist cotton wool or synthetic 70%
sponge saturated with water and covered with alcohol
a blotting paper. Echinoderm Menthol 10% 6% buffered
or
 Phenol or a few drops of dettol added to ata buffered formalin
magnesiu formalin can be used
prevent fungal growth.
m sulfate
 A sheet of blotting paper is also placed on the crystals in
inside of the lid to avoid condensed water from water
falling over the specimens. (Echinide
a and
holothuri
ans only)
Preservation of Invertebrates
Insect Preservation
Mounting Insects