Advanced Functions Class 4 Notes

Lesson 4 - Factoring Polynomial and Solving Polynomial Equations

When we factor a number such as 12, we rewrite 12 into a product of two or more integers.
Here are a few ways: 12 = (2)(6), 12 = (−3)(−4), etc. To factor 12 completely, we write it
into the product of its prime factors: 12 = (2)2 (3). Factoring polynomial is done in pretty
much the same manner. It involves rewriting the given polynomial of degree 𝑛 into a product of
two or more polynomials of degrees less or equal to 𝑛.

In the previous lessons, we have seen that putting a polynomial function into its factored form
is the first step in sketching the graph of the function. In the polynomial’s factored form, we can
easily obtain its distinct zeros and the orders of the zeros needed for sketching. In this lesson,
we will focus on the methods of factoring.

While some of the prerequisite skills such as finding the greatest common factor, factoring by
grouping and quadratic trinomial factoring will still apply in some cases, we will also learn to
apply the rational root theorem and the factor theorem to factor those polynomials where the
prior methods no longer work.

First, we will look at a few examples to review the methods that we should have come across
before this course.

When we are given a polynomial to factor, the first thing we should try is to factor out any
greatest common factor (GCF) among its terms as this will often simplify the problem.

Example 1: Factor out the greatest common factor from each of the following polynomials.

𝑎) 24𝑥 3 𝑧 2 + 15𝑥 4 𝑦 2 𝑧 − 21𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3

𝑏) 27𝑥 5 + 6𝑥 4 + 15𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2

𝑐) 16𝑥 3 (4𝑥 + 1) − 28𝑥 2 (4𝑥 + 1)2

Solution:

𝑎) All three terms can be divided by 3𝑥 2 𝑧 evenly, so

24𝑥 3 𝑧 2 + 15𝑥 4 𝑦 2 𝑧 − 21𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 = 3𝑥 2 𝑧(8𝑥𝑧 + 5𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 7𝑦𝑧 2 ).

𝑏) All four terms can be divided by 2𝑥 2 evenly, so

2𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 4 + 10𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 2 (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1).

𝑐) The two terms can be divided evenly by 4𝑥 2 (4𝑥 + 1), so

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Advanced Functions Class 4 Notes

16𝑥 3 (4𝑥 + 1) − 28𝑥 2 (4𝑥 + 1)2 = 4𝑥 2 (4𝑥 + 1)[4𝑥 − 7(4𝑥 + 1)]

= 4𝑥 2 (4𝑥 + 1)(−24𝑥 − 7)

= −4𝑥 2 (4𝑥 + 1)(24𝑥 + 7).

Factoring quadratic (degree 2) trinomial is another prerequisite skill that we should know for
this course. Let’s work out a few examples to remind ourselves of the process.

Example 2: Factor each quadratic trinomial completely.

𝑎) 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 32

𝑏) 3𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 + 24

𝑐) 2𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 28

𝑑) 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2

𝑒) 6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 20

Solution:

𝑎) Since the first term is 𝑥 2 , we know the expression must be factored into:
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 32 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏),
where the two integers 𝑎 and 𝑏 must multiply to −32 and 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 = −4.
In other words, we are looking for two integers 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 𝑎𝑏 = −32 and
𝑎 + 𝑏 = −4. We know (−8)(4) = −32 and −8 + 4 = −4.
Therefore, 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 32 = (𝑥 − 8)(𝑥 + 4).

𝑏) Since the first term is 3𝑥 2 and 3 is prime, we know the expression must be factored
into: 3𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 + 24 = (3𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏). As in part a), we are looking for two integers
𝑎 and 𝑏 so that 𝑎𝑏 = 24 and 𝑎 + 3𝑏 = 17. The integral factors of 24 are (1)(24),
(2)(12), (3)(8), (4)(6), (−1)(−24), (−2)(−12), (−3)(−8) and (−4)(−6). Now with
some trial and error, we can find the correct pair so that 𝑎 + 3𝑏 = 17. In this case, 8 +
3(3) = 17. Therefore, 3𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 + 24 = (3𝑥 + 8)(𝑥 + 3).

𝑐) For this question, we first notice that there is a GCF of 2. We factor out the GCF first to
get 2𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 28 = 2(𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 14). Next, we factor as we did in part a) to get
2𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 28 = 2(𝑥 − 7)(𝑥 + 2).

𝑑) As before, we started with 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏), where 𝑎𝑏 = −2 and 𝑎 +

𝑏 = 5. Since neither −2 + 1 nor 2 + (−1) is 5, it is impossible for us to factor this
quadratic expression.

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Advanced Functions Class 4 Notes

𝑒) Since the first term is 6𝑥 2 , we know the expression must be factored into one of the
two: 1) (3𝑥 + 𝑎)(2𝑥 + 𝑏) or 2) (6𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏).

Now we list out all the integral factors of −20: (1)(−20), (2)(−10), (4)(−5), (−4)(5),
(−2)(10) and (−1)(20). Now with some trial and error in 1) and 2), we see that the
correct factoring of this expression should be 6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 20 = (3𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 − 5) as
(4)(2𝑥) + (3𝑥)(−5) = −7𝑥.

There are trinomials of degree other than 2 that can be factored using the same technique as
covered in Example 2. We will look at how this can be done in the next example.

Example 3: Factor each trinomial completely.

𝑎) 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 15

𝑏) 3(𝑥 + 2)2 − 19(𝑥 + 2) + 6

Solution:

𝑎) Since (𝑥 2 )2 = 𝑥 4 , if we replace 𝑥 2 by 𝐴, then the expression becomes 𝐴2 + 2𝐴 − 15.

We know 𝐴2 + 2𝐴 − 15 = (𝐴 + 5)(𝐴 − 3), so the original expression is factored as
(𝑥 2 + 5)(𝑥 2 − 3).

𝑏) Similar to part a), if we replace (𝑥 + 2) by 𝐴, then the expression becomes 3𝐴2 −

19𝐴 + 6. With some trial and error, we have 3𝐴2 − 19𝐴 + 6 = (3𝐴 − 1)(𝐴 − 6), it
follows that
3(𝑥 + 2)2 − 19(𝑥 + 2) + 6 = [3(𝑥 + 2) − 1][(𝑥 + 2) − 6] = (3𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 4).

Factoring using Identities

You may recall the following identities that are usually used to factor the differences/sums of
squares and cubes from previous math courses:

𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏)
𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
Note: 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 is not factorable.

These identities can be extended to cover polynomials of degree 𝑛 that are in the form of sums
or differences of powers:

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Advanced Functions Class 4 Notes

𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑛−3 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑛−3 + 𝑎𝑏 𝑛−2 + 𝑏 𝑛−1 ) for any 𝑛 ∈ ℕ

𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑛−3 𝑏 2 − ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑏 𝑛−3 − 𝑎𝑏 𝑛−2 + 𝑏 𝑛−1 ), 𝑛 must be odd.

Note: 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛 is not factorable for even 𝑛.

Example 4: Factor each of the following.

𝑎) 𝑥 6 − 𝑦 6

𝑏) 128𝑥 7 + 1

𝑐) 16𝑥 4 + 81

𝑑) 32𝑥 5 − 243

Solution:

𝑎) Using the identity of 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏 𝑛 , we have

𝑥 6 − 𝑦 6 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 𝑦 + 𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 𝑥𝑦 4 + 𝑦 5 ).
Alternatively, we can also do 𝑥 6 − 𝑦 6 = (𝑥 3 )2 − (𝑦 3 )2 = (𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 )(𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 ) =
(𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )(𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ).

𝑏) Since 128𝑥 7 + 1 = (2𝑥)7 + 17 , so using the identity of 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛 , we have

128𝑥 7 + 1 = (2𝑥 + 1)(64𝑥 6 − 32𝑥 5 + 16𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1).

𝑐) 16𝑥 4 + 81 = (2𝑥)4 + 34 , but since 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛 is not factorable when 𝑛 is even, so the

expression is not factorable.

𝑑) Since 32𝑥 5 − 243 = (2𝑥)5 − 35 , so using the identity of 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏 𝑛 , we have

32𝑥 5 − 243 = (2𝑥 − 3)(16𝑥 4 + 24𝑥 3 + 36𝑥 2 + 54𝑥 + 81).

Factoring by Grouping

When we notice a given polynomial can be broken into groups that share a common factor,
then it is possible to factor each group separately then combine like terms. This process is
called factoring by grouping. We will see a few examples on the next page.

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Advanced Functions Class 4 Notes

Example 5: Factor each polynomial completely.

𝑎) 12𝑧 3 − 9𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 − 3

𝑏) 12𝑥𝑦 − 28𝑥 − 15𝑦 + 35

𝑐) 𝑥 5 + 7𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3 – 𝑥 2 – 7𝑥 – 6.

Solution:

𝑎) Grouping the first two terms and last two terms and factor the GCF of each group
separately, we have:
12𝑧 3 − 9𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 − 3 = 3𝑧 2 (4𝑧 − 3) + (4𝑧 − 3),

which can be simplified to (3𝑧 2 + 1)(4𝑧 − 3).

𝑏) Grouping the first two terms and last two terms and factor the GCF of each group
separately, we have:
12𝑥𝑦 − 28𝑥 − 15𝑦 + 35 = 4𝑥(3𝑦 − 7) − 5(3𝑦 − 7),

which can be simplified to (4𝑥 − 5)(3𝑥 − 7).

𝑐) Grouping the first three terms and last three terms and factor the GCF of each group
separately, we have:
𝑥 5 + 7𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3 – 𝑥 2 – 7𝑥 – 6 = 𝑥 3 (𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6) − (𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6),

which can be simplified to (𝑥 3 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6). We can factor the expression further
into (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 6).

Factoring using the Rational Root Theorem and the Factor Theorem

Sometimes, we maybe given a polynomial where all the methods covered above fail to carry
out the task of factoring. In these cases, we need to turn to the two theorems from last lesson
to help us find a factor of the polynomial first. We will demonstrate the steps of factoring these
more complex polynomials in the next example.

Example 6: Factor each polynomial completely.

𝑎) 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 17𝑥 − 15

𝑏) 12𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 25𝑥 − 12

𝑐) 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 − 32𝑥 − 12

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Advanced Functions Class 4 Notes

Solution:

𝑎) Since the first term is 𝑥 3 , if this polynomial has a linear factor, it must be in the form
of (𝑥 − 𝑘), where 𝑘 is an integral factor of −15: 𝑘 ∈ {±1, ±15, ±3, ±5}.

Let 𝑓(𝑥) represent the polynomial, with some trial and error, we see that 𝑓(−1) =
(−1)3 − (−1)2 − 17(−1) − 15 = 0. By the factor theorem, (𝑥 + 1) must be a factor of
the polynomial. Using polynomial division to divide 𝑓(𝑥) by (𝑥 + 1), we get a quotient
of 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 15 = (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 3).

Therefore, 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 17𝑥 − 15 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 3).

𝑏) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 12𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 25𝑥 − 12, if 𝑓(𝑥) has a linear factor (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏), then 𝑎
must be an integral factor of 12 and 𝑏 must be an integral factor of −12: 𝑎 ∈
𝑏
{±1, ±12, ±2, ±6, ±3, ±4} and 𝑏 ∈ {±1, ±12, ±2, ±6, ±3, ±4}. So, 𝑎 ∈
1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 4
{±1, ± 12 , ± 2 , ± 6 , ± 3 , ± 4 , ±12, ±6, ±2, ±4, ±3, ± 3 , ± 2 , ± 4 , ± 3}. Again, with some
1 1 1 1
trial and error, we see that 𝑓 (− 2) = 12 (− 8) + 4 (4) − 25 (− 2) − 12 = 0, so
(2𝑥 + 1) must be a factor. Dividing 𝑓(𝑥) by (2𝑥 + 1), we have
12𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 25𝑥 − 12 = (2𝑥 + 1)(6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 12) = (2𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 − 3).

𝑐) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 − 32𝑥 − 12, if 𝑓(𝑥) has a linear factor (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏), then
𝑎 must be an integral factor of 2 and 𝑏 must be an integral factor of −12: 𝑎 ∈ {±1, ±2}
𝑏 1 3
and 𝑏 ∈ {±1, ±12, ±2, ±6, ±3, ±4}. So, 𝑎 ∈ {±1, ± 2 , ±12, ±6, ±2, ±3, ± 2 , ±4}. We
see that 𝑓(−2) = 0 with trial and error, so (𝑥 + 2) must be a factor. Using polynomial
division, we have 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 − 6).

We will let 𝑝(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 − 6 and repeat the process to find a factor of 𝑝(𝑥).
Since 𝑝(−2) is also 0, we know (𝑥 + 2) is again a factor, so now
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)2 (2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3) = (𝑥 + 2)2 (2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3).

Solving Polynomial Equations

Knowing how to factor polynomials will help greatly in solving polynomial equations. We will
look the steps with a few examples.

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Advanced Functions Class 4 Notes

Example 7: Solve each equation for 𝑥 ∈ ℂ.

𝑎)15𝑥 2 + 50𝑥 = 2𝑥 3
𝑏) 4𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 + 19𝑥 + 7 = 0
𝑐) 4𝑥 4 − 37𝑥 2 + 9 = 0

Solution:
𝑎) First, we write the equation so that the right-hand side becomes zero:
−2𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 2 + 50𝑥 = 0
−𝑥(2𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 − 50) = 0
−𝑥(2𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 10) = 0
We have 𝑥 = 0, or 2𝑥 + 5 = 0, or 𝑥 − 10 = 0.
5
So, 𝑥 = 0, − 2 , 10 are the three roots.
Note: It’s not a good idea to divide both side by 𝑥 from the original equation. When doing so, we assume
𝑥 ≠ 0. However, 𝑥 = 0 is in fact a solution of the original equation.

𝑏) Using the rational root theorem and the factor theorem and some trial and error, we
found the following:
1 3 1 2 1
4 (− 2) + 12 (− 2) + 19 (− 2) + 7 = 0.
1
Consequently, 𝑥 = − 2 is one of the root and (2𝑥 + 1) is a factor of the polynomial on
the left-hand side. Dividing the polynomial by (2𝑥 + 1), we have (2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7), so:
(2𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7) = 0
1
The root 𝑥 = − 2 came from the linear factor (2𝑥 + 1), two more roots result from the
quadratic factor (2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7):
2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7 = 0.
As the quadratic factor cannot be factor, we use the quadratic formula to solve it:
−5 ± √52 − 4(2)(7)
𝑥=
2(2)

−5 ± √25 − 56
𝑥=
4
5 √−31
𝑥=− ±
4 4
5 √31𝑖
𝑥=− ±
4 4
1 5 √31𝑖 5 √31𝑖
Therefore, we have three roots: 𝑥 = − 2 , − 4 + , −4 − .
4 4

𝑐) We notice that 4𝑥 4 − 37𝑥 2 + 9 is a quadratic trinomial if we replace 𝑥 2 by 𝐴:

4𝐴2 − 37𝐴 + 9 = 0
(4𝐴 − 1)(𝐴 − 9) = 0

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Advanced Functions Class 4 Notes

1 1
So, 𝐴 = 4 or 𝐴 = 9, meaning 𝑥 2 = 4 or 9.
1
Therefore, we have four roots: 𝑥 = ± 2 , ±3.

From the above examples, you may have noticed that the number of roots is always 𝑛 for a
polynomial equation with degree 𝑛, when we extend the number field to include imaginary
numbers. A polynomial equation with degree 𝑛 has 𝑛 complex roots.